
Cfass 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr 



OUR ISLAND EMPIRE 

A Hand-Book of Cuba, 
Porto Rico, Hawaii, and 
the Philippine Islands 

7 

BY CHARLES MORRIS 

AUTHOR OF "THE NATION'S NAVY," "THE WAR 
WITH SPAIN," "HISTORICAL TALES," ETC. 




J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA MDCCCXCIX 



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29363 



Copyright, 1899, 

BY 

J. B. LippiNcoTT Company. 





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CONTENTS. 

• • 

SECTION L 
CUBA. 

SECTION PAGE 

I.— Historical Sketch 7 

11 —Physical Conditions . 15 

Extent and Situation 15 

The Mountain System 17 

Plains and Rivers 21 

The Coastal System 23 

The Forest Region 25 

Geology 26 

Climate 28 

III.— Natural Productions 32 

Forest Trees 32 

Food Plants and Fruits 34 

Animals 38 

Metals 41 

Minerals 44 

IV.— Civil and Political Relations 48 

Governmental Organization 48 

Divisions of Territory 50 

Abolition of Slavery 51 

Religion 52 

Means of Communication 53 

Population 57 

Education 60 

v.— Centres of Population 62 

Havana, the Capital City 62 

Matanzas 'j'j 

Cardenas 80 

Other Northern Ports 81 

Santiago de Cuba 83 

Trinidad 88 

Cienfuegos 89 

Inland Cities 91 

Health Resorts 94 

iii 



iv CONTENTS. 

SBCTIOW PACE 

VI.— Manners and Customs ^6 

City Life 96 

Food and Beverages , 104 

Street Scenes 108 

The Gambling Propensity 112 

Rural Life 116 

VIL — Agricultural Productions 124 

Coffee 124 

Tobacco 132 

Sugar 136 

Live-Stock 144 

VIII.— Manufactures and Commerce . , , 149 

Cigars 149 

Commerce 151 

Finances 156 

The Future Outlook 159 

• • 

SECTION II. 

PORTO RICO. 

I.— Historical Sketch 165 

II.— Physical Conditions 171 

Size and Situation 171 

Rivers and Lakes 173 

Islands 174 

Harbors 175 

Geology 177 

Climate 178 

III.— Natural Productions '. 181 

Plant Life 181 

Animal Life 183 

Minerals f?4 

IV.— Civil and Political Relations 186 

Government and Religion 186 

Roads and Railways 187 

Population 189 

Education 192 

v.— Centres of Population 194 

General Conditions 194 

San Juan 194 



CONTENTS. V 

SECTION PAGE 



Ponce 



199 



Mayaguez 200 

Other Seaports 201 

Inland Towns 202 

VI. — Manners and Customs 205 

The Spanish Class 205 

The Peasant Class 206 

VII.— Agricultural Industries 210 

Fertility of the Soil 210 

Farm Crops 212 

Live-Stock 217 



Vlll. — Manufactures and Commerce 
Articles of Manufacture . . 



Commerce 
Finances . 



219 

219 

219 

223 

Future Prospects 225 

• • 
SECTION IIL 

HAWAIL 

I.— Historical Sketch 228 

II.— Physical Conditions 237 

Geographical Relations 237 

Geological Formation 239 

Mountain System 240 

Volcanoes 241 

Plains and Valleys , , 245 

Harbors 247 

Climate 248 

Rainfall 250 

Diseases 251 

III.— Natural Productions 253 

Forest and Fruit Trees 253 

Useful Plants 258 

Native Animals 261 

Introduced Animals 263 

rv.— Civil and Political Relations 266 

Territory of Hawaii 266 

Population 267 



vi CONTENTS. 

SBCTION PACK 

Education 270 

Religion 271 

Public Works 273 

v.— Centres of Population 278 

Honolulu 278 

Hilo 283 

Lahaina 285 

Kailua 285 

VI.— The People of Hawaii 287 

The Native Population 287 

Dwellings and Food 293 

Inhabitants of Foreign Origin , . . . 295 

VII. — Agricultural Industries 299 

General Conditions 299 

Sugar Production 300 

Coffee Culture 30& 

Other Agricultural Products 309 

Grazing Industries 312 

Bird Products 314 

VIII.— Manufactures and Commerce 317 

Mechanical Industries 317 

Commerce 318 

Shipping 320 

Finances 321 

• • 

SECTION IV. 

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

I.— Historical Sketch 323 

II.— Physical Conditions 334 

Geography 334 

Geology 337 

Volcanoes 339 

Luzon 342 

Mindanao 343 

The Smaller Islands 344 

Harbors 347 

Climate 349 

Diseases 352 



CONTENTS. vii 

SECTION PAGB 

III.— Natural Productions 356 

Forest Trees 356 

Fruit and Food Plants 361 

Animal Life 362 

Metals 367 

Minerals 371 

IV.— Civil and Political Relations 373 

Government 373 

Religion , 376 

Public Works . . . , 381 

Population . . , . , 384 

The Civilized Natives 386 

The Wild Tribes , 393 

Education 396 

V. — Centres of Population 399 

Manila 399 

Iloilo „ 410 

Cebu 411 

Other Tow^ns 412 

VI. — The People of the Philippines 416 

Character of the Natives 416 

Dwellings, Food, and Dress 423 

Popular Amusements 428 

The Mestizos 434 

The Moros 436 

The Wild Tribes 439 

. The Aetas, or Negritos 440 

VII.— Agricultural Industries 443 

Manila Hemp 443 

Sugar 446 

Tobacco 450 

Rice 451 

Coffee 453 

Other Vegetable Products 455 

Live-Stock 458 

VI II. — Manufactures and Commerce 460 

Cigars 460 

Other Manufactures 461 

Commerce 463 

Finances 467 

The Future Outlook 469 



PREFACE. 



The United States of America, after more than a 
century of continental growth and development, has, 
upon the threshold of the Twentieth Century, taken a 
new and radical step forward in its national career, 
having added to its dominions a large number of tropi- 
cal islands, situated on the opposite sides of the earth, 
and inhabited by peoples strikingly distinct from those 
of the great republic of the West. The question. What 
shall we do with them? is one which necessarily arises, 
but which only time and experience can answer. 
Some of these islands have been accepted as territorial 
acquisitions of the United States; others stand at 
present as wards of the republic, their future status left 
open to the decision of events. In the new and un- 
tried situation into which this country has entered, any 
hasty settlement of these momentous problems would 
be unwise and might prove disastrous. A period of 
watching and waiting is what wisdom dictates, — of 
drifting on the tide of events until circumstances shall 
point the way and judgment grow mature. This is 
not as many would have it. There are numbers eager 
to settle all questions in a breath, ready to adopt the 
first half-considered decision — and repent at leisure. 
Fortunately, this is not the sentiment of those into 
whose hands this problem has fallen, and who are feel- 
ing their way with commendable slowness and grave 



X PREFACE. 

consideration to a judicious solution of each question 
as it arises. 

The decision rests not alone in the hands of the 
legislative and executive branches of the government, 
but in those of the people as well. An enlightened 
public opinion is an important element in the situation, 
and to the formation of such a just conception of the 
circumstances some degree of acquaintance with the 
conditions of these island acquisitions is highly im- 
portant. It is for this purpose, in part, that the present 
work has been prepared, — to give the people of the 
United States a general knowledge of the problem 
they have taken in hand, through a succinct descrip- 
tion ■ of these new island dominions, their natural 
conditions, physical resources, and the character and 
modes of life and thought of their populations, as a 
guide to an enlightened decision as to what had best 
be done with them. 

This is only one of the purposes — and not the main 
one — that the author has had in view. There is a 
natural feeling of interest concerning these islands, 
based partly on the usual desire to know, partly on 
more personal motives, which it is important to 
gratify. There are some who have it in view to visit 
one or more of these islands, for business or observa- 
tion, or for permanent residence; others who desire 
to enter into business relations with their merchants 
or producers; and many others who are moved by the 
natural thirst for information, which recent events 
have directed strongly towards these oceanic lands. 

'' Our Island Empire" is designed to cover all the 
points here adverted to, and to give in a single volume 
of moderate size the information which elsewhere 



PREFACE. XI 

would need to be sought in many distinct works. It 
embraces a comprehensive description, from various 
points of view, of Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Hawaiian 
and PhiHppine Islands, including their extent and 
situation, natural and industrial productions, govern- 
mental conditions, public works, population, com- 
merce and manufactures, and all other matters of 
general interest concerning them, being prepared with 
the view that, from this one work, the reading public 
may obtain an intelligent and satisfactory acquaint- 
ance with the leading facts concerning these new 
wards and colonies of our home country. 

In gaining these tropical islands, the United States 
has entered into a new and important business and 
political relation with the nations of the world. Widely 
separated as they are, they possess a remarkable simi- 
larity in production, to which a brief allusion may here 
be made. Sugar is the leading product of most of 
them and an important product of them all. Coffee 
and tobacco form other valuable crops. The only 
vegetable product of mercantile importance special to 
any one of them is the Manila hemp of the Philip- 
pines. In their great variety of tropical fruits they 
present a like similarity. By their acquisition, this 
country adds widely to the scope of its vegetable 
productions, gaining a leading place among the sugar 
and tobacco producers of the world, and a very promi- 
nent one among the producers of cofifee and various 
other food substances. Its commerce with these 
countries bids fair to gain a great development, and 
their productiveness to be enormously enhanced under 
the stimulus of American capital and enterprise. 

Politically, the outlook may prove a similarly broad 



xii PREFACE. 

one. This country has Hfted the anchors which 
hitherto held it fast to the American continent, and 
has drifted far over the seas into that arena of colonial 
international relations from which it has heretofore 
striven to keep clear. What the result will be no man 
can predict. We have primitive populations to civilize, 
indolent populations to stimulate, hostile populations 
to pacify, ignorant populations to educate, oppressed 
populations to lift into manhood and teach the princi- 
ples of liberty and the art of self-government. And 
we are thrown suddenly into the turbid maelstrom of 
the Eastern Question, with its impending problem of 
the possible partition of the ancient empire of China 
among a host of land-hungry applicants. 

Whether or not the United States will be forced to 
take a hand in this great game, or what controlling in- 
fluence in the direction of justice and discretion it may 
exercise over the result, are subjects with which the 
writer of this work does not undertake to deal. It has 
been his object simply to present the elements of the 
situation; to give readers some definite general idea 
of the character and conditions of the new acquisitions 
of the United States; to ofifer the facts of the case and 
leave to them the forming of what they may consider 
the just and proper conclusions from these premises. 
There are two sides to this as to every question; but 
the wise man will take neither side until he has learned 
all that the question involves, and in acquiring such 
information it is hoped that he will find this work of 
practical value. 



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OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

*** 

SECTION I. 
CUBA. 

• •• 
L HISTORICAL SKETCH- 

It was on the 28th of October, 1492, that the eyes of 
white men first fell upon the green shores of Cuba, the 
largest, richest, and most important of that tropical 
island group since known as the West Indies. Colum- 
bus was enchanted by its verdant charm and desig- 
nated it as " the most beautiful land that eye ever 
saw." He named the island Juana, in honor of Prince 
Juan, son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. After 
the death of Ferdinand the name was changed to 
Fernandina. It was afterwards named Santiago, from 
the patron saint of Spain, and subsequently Ave Maria, 
in honor of the Virgin. But all these names have 
given way to that of Cuba, the title applied to it by its 
native inhabitants. 

Columbus made two other visits to this newly dis- 
covered land, in 1494 and again in 1502. It was first 
circumnavigated and proved to be an island in 1508, 
and in 151 1 Diego Columbus, the son of the dis- 
coverer, fitted out an expedition for its colonization. 

7 



8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The first settlement was made at Baracoa. In 15 14 
Santiago and Trinidad were settled, and in 15 15 a 
town named San Cristoval de la Havana. This is now 
known as Batabano, the name Havana having been in 
1 5 19 transferred to the site of the present capital, 
which was founded in that year. 

The Indian inhabitants of Cuba are described as a 
tranquil and happy people, living in peaceful enjoy-* 
ment of their rich island, and welcoming the whites as 
a superior race. Only one of their chiefs opposed the 
invasion of the island, Hatuey, a fugitive from His- 
paniola, whose people had been treated with shameful 
cruelty by the Spanish settlers. He was repaid for his 
patriotism by being burned alive as a fugitive slave. 
His fellows soon followed him to the grave. The 
population of the island at that time has been estimated 
at three hundred thousand. Few of these survived at 
the end of the century. Enslaved and forced to severe 
and unaccustomed labor, they died rapidly under the 
lash of their heartless masters, while their occasional 
insurrections were quelled with a sanguinary cruelty 
that aided greatly in their disappearance. Their place 
was taken by negro slaves, who grew numerous after 
1580, at which period the cultivation of tobacco and 
sugar-cane became active industries. The rearing of 
cattle had previously been the principal occupation of 
the settlers. 

The Spaniards did not find Cuba a haven of peace. 
As early as 1538 Havana was attacked and burned by 
a French privateer, and in 1554 it was again taken and 
destroyed by the French. The first invasion led to the 
building, by the famous Fernando de Soto, of the forti- 
fication known as the Castillo de la Fuerza, and the 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 9 

second to the erection of the Morro and the Punta, 
ancient works of defence which still exist. 

For nearly two centuries subsequently the people of 
Cuba were kept in a state of dread by the privateers 
and freebooters who infested its waters, and at inter- 
vals invaded its shores. The daring mariners of Eng- 
land, France, and Holland held the Spanish galleons 
to be free spoil, and the buccaneers of the West Indies 
added to their piracy on the high seas the capture and 
sack of the cities of New Spain. 

These minor acts of hostility were succeeded, in 
1762, by an invasion in force, — a British fleet and army 
under Lord Albemarle making a vigorous assault on 
the harbor and city of Havana. The fleet consisted of 
nineteen ships of the line, six frigates, and nearly two 
hundred transports; the army of about fourteen thou- 
sand men. The walls of Havana were manned by a 
Spanish force of nearly double this strength, mainly 
volunteers, who made an obstinate defence. For two 
months of the sickly summer season the siege con- 
tinued, disease proving a far more deadly foe to the 
besiegers than the guns of the enemy. The afifair was 
decided by a reinforcement of twenty-three hundred 
men from Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, 
led by Generals Putnam and Lyman, heroes of the 
French and Indian War. Their coming gave heart to 
the British and discouraged the Spaniards, and the 
city, vigorously assailed, surrendered on August 14. 
The terms of surrender included about one-fourth of 
the island, and the whole of Cuba might readily have 
been made British territory; but it was restored to 
Spain by treaty in the following February. 

The only advantage to the victors of this futile con- 



lo OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

quest was a fleet of Spanish ships taken in the harbor, 
and a spoil in gold and silver to the value of about 
$3,600,000, which the invaders, like so many free- 
booters, divided among themselves. There were com- 
paratively few to share this rich booty. The deadly 
climate had swept off the invaders in hosts. Of the 
Americans, Trumbull tells us that " scarcely any of the 
private soldiers, and but few of the officers, ever re- 
turned. Such as were not killed in the service were 
generally swept away by the great mortality which pre- 
vailed in the fleet and army." 

The prosperity of Cuba under the Spaniards dates 
from this period. The first census, taken in 1773, 
yielded a total population, black and white, of only 
171,620. It has increased nearly tenfold since that 
date, the latest census giving a population of over 
1,600,000. Luis de Las Casas, who became captain- 
general in 1790, was indefatigable in his efforts for the 
advancement of the island. He introduced the culture 
of indigo, did his utmost to remove the restrictions 
upon commerce, and promoted a series of highly use- 
ful public works. His wise administration kept Cuba 
tranquil during the revolution in San Domingo, and 
the French emigrants from that island introduced into 
Cuba the culture of coffee, which became a flourishing 
industry. 

The reign of oppression in Cuba became pro- 
nounced after 1825, in which year King Ferdinand of 
Spain, incensed by the loss of his dominions upon the 
main-land, issued a decree which gave the captain- 
generals almost absolute authority over the island, be- 
stowing on them the powers "which by the royal 
ordinances are granted to the governors of besieged 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. ii 

cities." They were given " ample and unbounded 
power" to exile from Cuba any official of whom they 
disapproved, and to suspend, at their own free-will, the 
execution of any order or provision concerning the 
administration. 

The effect of such a decree, giving autocratic power 
to a succession of men chosen for political reasons, 
none of them natives of the island, and many of them 
seeking it with the purpose of acquiring a fortune by 
any available means, may be imagined. Some of these 
men have acted honorably; others have made for 
themselves a record of infamy. Not only were the 
captain-generals, but practically all the officials of the 
island, sent from Spain; the people of Cuba being ex- 
cluded from office, exposed to illegal exactions of all 
kinds, heavily taxed to support a standing army and 
navy, and deprived of civil, political, and religious 
liberty. 

The result of this method of colonial government 
has been a bitter and intense hatred of the Spanish 
officials by the native population, and a series of in- 
surrections and filibuster invasions, occurring at in- 
tervals until 1868, in which year began a rebellion of 
ten years' duration. For the suppression of this for- 
midable revolt, Spain sent more than 150,000 soldiers, 
commanded by her ablest generals, to Cuba; but in 
the end, hopeless of success, was forced to offer favor- 
able terms to the insurrectionists and promise the peo- 
ple a series of reforms. These terms the Cubans, 
equally hopeless of success, accepted; but their leaders 
took care to leave the island, having no great faith in 
Spanish honor. 

The promised reforms did not touch the office of the 



12 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

captain-general, who retained his autocratic power and 
his absolute control of the administration. The island 
was divided into its present provinces, provincial as- 
sembHes were instituted, and representation in the 
Spanish Cortes was granted. But these reforms were 
manipulated in the interest of the Spanish party ; taxa- 
tion continued as heavy as ever, the officials as cor- 
rupt, frauds as prevalent, salaries and perquisites as 
high, and the restrictions on commerce as severe, 
while the debt of the island grew with a discouraging 
rapidity in view of the fact that hardly a dollar of it 
was spent in the interest of the islanders. 

This state of affairs had its natural outcome in a new 
insurrection, which broke out in February, 1895, and 
which for three years Spain sought in vain to suppress, 
though she sent 200,000 men to the island, and used 
measures whose barbarity aroused a wide-spread sen- 
timent of indignation. Imprisonment of terrible se- 
verity, massacre of non-combatants, and similar atroci- 
ties did not suffice. Under the administration of Cap- 
tain-General Weyler the country people were driven 
in multitudes from their homes, their houses and crops 
destroyed, and they concentrated around the cities and 
forts, where it is estimated that more than 200,000 of 
them died miserably of disease and starvation. 

This frightful cruelty aroused an irrepressible indig- 
nation in the United States, in which country sym- 
pathy for the suffering Cubans had for many years 
prevailed. Earnest efforts were made by the charitable 
to feed the starving, and a strong sentiment in favor 
of warlike aid to the insurrectionists arose. All hopes 
of a peaceful solution of the difficulty vanished in Feb- 
ruary, 1898, when the United States battle-ship Maine 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 13 

was blown up by a submarine mine in Havana harbor 
and sent to the bottom with three-fourths of her crew. 
This fatal act, to whomsoever due, put an end to hesi- 
tation. Congress reflected the warlike sentiment of 
the people; all efiforts to avert hostilities proved futile; 
and on April 21 war between the United States and 
Spain began, the American fleet being sent to block- 
ade the port of Havana and the adjoining portion of 
the Cuban coast. 

Within four months thereafter the war was at an 
end and Cuba was free, the Spanish fleet having been 
destroyed off Santiago harbor, the Spanish army de- 
feated in a severe engagement, and the city and garri- 
son of Santiago de Cuba, with the neighboring terri- 
tory, surrendered to the United States army. By the 
terms of the peace protocol, signed August 12, 1898, 
Spain agreed to remove all her forces from Cuba, to 
whose people the United States Congress had guaran- 
teed an independent government, and the century of 
oppression was at an end. Subsequent negotiations 
fixed the ist of January, 1899, as the date of final 
evacuation of the island by Spain, and on that day the 
United States entered into temporary military occu- 
pation, to be continued until a stable government of 
the island should be established by the Cubans. 

This rapid historical review is offered as preliminary 
to our main purpose of description, with the purpose 
of showing in general outline the causes leading up to 
the present condition of affairs in the island of Cuba. 
Some such result as that which has occurred was in- 
evitable, sooner or later. The colonial policy of Spain 
was so irritating to all right-thinking nations, and in 
particular to the American people, as to grow yearly 



14 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

more difficult to endure, and her methods of warfare 
became in the end so intolerable that the United States 
could not avoid coming to the aid of the oppressed. 
What will be the final result it is too soon to say. The 
Cubans may prove capable of self-government, and 
they may not. In the latter case, the only solution of 
the problem seems to be the absorption of Cuba by the 
United States. 



IL PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 

EXTENT AND SITUATION. 

Cuba, the Queen of the Antilles, as it is frequently 
called, lies wholly within the tropics, and not far south 
of the main-land of the United States, the channel 
separating it from Florida being 130 miles wide. A 
second channel, of somewhat less width, divides it 
from the nearest portion of Yucatan. Narrower chan- 
nels lie between it and the neighboring islands of the 
Bahamas, Jamaica, and Hayti. It is bathed on the 
south by the waters of the Caribbean Sea, on the north 
by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the northwest by the 
Gulf of Mexico, its nearest United States neighbor 
being the island of Key West, eighty-six miles distant. 

Cuba is a long, narrow, crescent-shaped island, its 
convex side turned to the north. It has been com- 
pared in shape to a bird's tongue, and also, in view of 
its peculiar eastern expansion, to a hammer-headed 
shark. It extends through eleven degrees of longi- 
tude (74° to 85° W.), and through about four degrees 
of latitude (19° 50' to 23° 10' N.); it is crossed by the 
meridian of Washington about 200 miles from Cape 
Maisi, its eastern extremity. The length in a direct 
line is about 760 miles, but following a curved line 
through its centre it may measure more than 800 
miles. It averages about eighty miles in width. Near 
its eastern end, on the meridian of Manzanillo, it at- 
tains a width estimated at from 125 to 140 miles, while 

15 



i6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

in the vicinity of Havana it narrows to about thirty 
miles, and at Mariel, its narrowest point, to twenty- 
four miles. To gain a conception of its size as com- 
pared with American distances, it may be said that if 
laid down on our northern States it would extend from 
New York to the vicinity of Chicago ; while its widtlf 
near Havana would stretch about from Baltimore to 
Washington; near Santiago, from New York to Al- 
bany. 

In actual dimensions Cuba approaches closely to the 
State of Pennsylvania (45,215 square miles), its area, 
including its coastal islands, being given as 45,883 
square miles. South of its western section, crossed by 
the meridian of Havana, lies the Isle of Pines (Isla 
de Pinos), of 1214 square miles area, while the many 
small islands have a combined area of about 1350 
square miles. The coast line is about 2200 miles in 
length, or nearly 7000 miles if all its numerous in- 
dentations be included. 

The island, through much of its extent, possesses a 
low, flat coast, subject to frequent floods, and contain- 
ing many large lagoons, especially on the north, their 
only commercial use being their yield of salt. A screen 
of islands, keys, banks, and reefs, grouped into four 
archipelagoes, extends along much of the coast, ren- 
dering navigation difficult and dangerous, — in many 
places impossible. Yet this is by no means wholly the 
case, about half the coast line being free from these 
obstructions, while no island, in proportion to its ex- 
tent, surpasses Cuba in harbors, many of them acces- 
sible to the largest ships. These generally have nar- 
row entrances, but open into spacious bays within, and 
offer commodious shelter and easy defence. Of those 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 17 

on the north may be named the ports of Bahia Honda, 
Mariel, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas, Niievitas, and 
Nipe; on the south are the spacious harbors of Guan- 
tanamo, Santiago de Cuba, Trinidad, and Cienfuegos. 
The island in all is said to have fifty-four ports, fifteen 
of which are open to commerce. 

Cuba occupies a very favorable position for com- 
merce, lying, as it does, at the mouth of the Gulf 
of Mexico, the northern and southern entrances to 
which extend past its shores, and being in such close 
proximity to the United States, Central America, and 
South America. Its capital, Havana, has in conse- 
quence been designated the " Key to the New World." 

THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 

Cuba has a backbone of highlands, rising in the east 
to mountainous elevation, and extending from end to 
end of the island, while from their northern and south- 
ern slopes plains stretch to the bordering seas. They 
now approach the north coast, now the south, and now 
follow the centre of the island, but are not continuous, 
being broken into groups, between which He roUing 
uplands, or in some regions low plains only a few hun- 
dred feet above sea level. Extending, of varying 
height, from Cape San Antonio in the west to Cape 
Maisi in the east, the chain here turns westward again, 
and follows the southern coast line past Santiago to 
Cape Cruz. This extension causes a marked widening 
of the province of Santiago de Cuba, to which it gives 
a triangular form. The total length of the highlands 
approaches 1000 miles, and they occupy about one- 
fourth of the total area. 

It may give a wrong impression to designate this 



i8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

as a mountain range, as is ordinarily done, it being 
more correct to speak of it as a watershed, out of 
which, or adjacent to which, rise mountainous peaks 
or short independent ranges, but whose ordinary 
height is from loo to 400 feet, and occasionally less. 
In the east it rises into a complex mass of mountains 
with fertile valleys between their heights. 

The coast range between Cape Maisi and Cape Cruz, 
known through much of its length as the Sierra Maes- 
tra, or Master Mountains, contains the highest eleva- 
tions on the island, its loftiest summit being the Pico 
de Turquino, 8320 feet or more in height, and lying 
midway between Cape Cruz and Santiago. Between 
Turquino and the city of Santiago the range takes the 
subordinate name of Sierra de Cobre, or Copper 
Mountains, from their containing the copper mines of 
the Santiago district. 

From Santiago eastward the southern and central 
ranges are joined by lateral spurs, the whole forming 
an intricate series of elevations, forest clad, and cut 
into sharp ridges known as cuchillas, or " knife-edged" 
crests, as distinguished from the sierras, or " saws." 
These connecting ridges break up the country into a 
maze of precipitous elevations, which render the east- 
ern half of the province of Santiago de Cuba a country 
very difficult to traverse and little known. In this dis- 
trict, with its few and poor roads, its dense forests, its 
sudden ascents and descents, its pathless intricacies, 
the insurrection long held its own, its numerous lurk- 
ing places, caves, and defiles enabling the insurgents 
to defy pursuit. 

This broken and rock-bound country is, in diversity 
of products and beauties of nature, one of the most 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 19 

attractive in the world. Its many changes of eleva- 
tion, with the consequent rapid variations in climate, 
people it with a remarkable variety of plants, — orchids, 
palms, and others, — many of them bearing rich-hued 
tropical flowers, while insect life may be seen here in 
its gayest colors and greatest abundance. Add to 
these features of attraction the frequent cascades due 
to the numerous streams and abundant rainfall, the 
richness of the verdure, the striking rock portals and 
other forms of mountain architecture, and we have in 
the cuchillas a varied array of nature's charms which 
few other localities present. 

The central chain displays near its eastern ex- 
tremity, back of the port of Baracoa, a striking peak 
over 3000 feet high, long known to navigators as El 
Yunque de Baracoa ('* The Anvil of Baracoa"). As 
the harbor of Nipe is approached the mountains de- 
crease considerably in height, and by the time the bay 
of Nuevitas is reached they vanish as a range, only 
detached groups appearing at intervals. One of these, 
the Sierra de Cubitas, north of the city of Puerto Prin- 
cipe, has been long noted for its great caves, and came 
into prominence during the recent msurrection as the 
place of retreat of President Cisneros and his cabinet, 
the officials of the insurgent government. Between 
the Cubitas group and that of Bamburanao, in the 
province of Santa Clara, the island narrows to a width 
of less than fifty miles, and sinks nearly to sea level. 
Across this region extended the first military trocha, 
a line of forts, wire fences, and timber breastworks 
established for the purpose of checking the movements 
and dividing the forces of the rebels. 

Farther west the highlands approach the southern 



20 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

shore, the Sierra de San Juan y Trinidad extending 
from Trinidad to Cienfuegos and beyond. Imme- 
diately back of the harbor of Trinidad rises the peak 
of Potrillo, an elevation of about 3000 feet altitude. 
As Matanzas is approached the northern highlands 
rise into the Pan de Matanzas (1300 feet), a sugar-loaf 
peak famous among mariners, as enabling them to 
get their bearings off a dangerous coast. 

Westward from Matanzas the mountain ridge grows 
more continuous, culminating in a peak 2000 feet high, 
beyond which it gradually sinks and finally disappears 
in the sandy and marshy region of Cape San An- 
tonio. The flatness of this end of the island is in 
marked contrast to the lofty elevations with which 
it terminates at Cape Maisi in the east. At Mariel, 
west of Havana, is the narrowest part of the island, a 
depressed region across which General Weyler built 
his celebrated trocha in 1896. 

As may be seen, the ridge varies greatly in height, 
now attaining considerable elevation, now descending 
almost to sea level. The only continuous chain is the 
Sierra Maestra, in the extension to Cape Cruz. This 
southeastern sierra forms a great calcareous mass, its 
summits usually naked and rocky. The central and 
western mountains are largely composed of compact 
limestone, which has been excavated by subterranean 
waters into numerous caverns, some being of great 
extent and striking beauty. These were utilized by 
the insurgents during the insurrection as places of 
shelter and concealment. Some of the mountain 
peaks, such as that of Turquino, show indications of 
former volcanic action, though no active volcanoes 
now exist. Earthquakes occasionally occur, Santiago 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 21 

de Cuba province being their chief location. Those 
of 1776, 1842, and 1852 were of great severity. 

PLAINS AND RIVERS. 

Occupying the spaces between the isolated moun- 
tani groups, and extending in rolling slopes from the 
mountains to the coasts, lie the fertile plains of the 
island, a productive region of lowlands which com- 
prise much the greater part of the area of Cuba, 
and whose richly fertile soil, under the stimulus of 
a tropical sun and frequent rains, has immense powers 
of production. These lowlands, gently undulating 
and rising only from eighty to one hundred feet 
above sea level, form a practically continuous belt 
around the island, in which are to be found the great 
sugar plantations. Above these and on the lower 
slopes of the central range lie the grazing and farm 
lands, whose products include the famous Cuban to- 
bacco. The highlands are, as a rule, covered with 
dense forest. 

Of the fertile lowland districts the most celebrated 
are those of Jagua (Cienfuegos), Trinidad, Mariel, and 
Matanzas. The provinces of Matanzas and Santa 
Clara contain at once the best and the worst lands of 
Cuba, well watered and highly fertile soil occurring 
side by side with districts noted for sterihty. Regions 
of marsh land extend along much of the coast, and the 
flat southern coast lands are subject to overflow. 

As regards the watercourses of the island, the 
rivers, flowing from mountain to coast, are necessarily 
short. They are, however, very numerous, and in the 
rainy season swell into deep and wide floods. The 
Cauto, the largest stream, drains the long valley be- 



22 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

tween the Sierra Maestra and the main mountain 
ridge, and is navigable for small vessels for sixty miles 
inland. Its navigation, however, has not always 
proved safe. The bar at its mouth was shifted by a 
heavy flood in 1616 so as to imprison all the vessels in 
the stream, one of them a Spanish man-of-war. They 
were held beyond escape and had to be abandoned. 

On the north side the largest stream is Sagua la 
Grande, ninety miles long and navigable for about 
twenty miles. Among the streams navigable for 
shorter distances are the Sagua la Chica, the Jati- 
bonico of the South, the Sasa, the Agabama, and the 
San Juan, the last of which flows into the bay of Cien- 
fuegos. The island possesses few lakes, most of which 
lie near the coast marshes. There are some, however, 
in the mountain region, of which much the most inter- 
esting is Ariguanabo, about twenty miles southwest of 
Havana. Walled around with rock ridges, this attrac- 
tive body of water is about six square miles in area 
and thirty feet deep, and is rich in finny wealth. 

What is said above does not tell the full story of the 
rivers, nor its most interesting feature. The limestone 
which forms the mountain masses of Cuba and ex- 
tends in a thick layer down their slopes to the marsh 
region or the sea is permeable to water, and has been 
dissolved away so as to form great caverns and long 
underground tunnels, into which many of the streams 
plunge and disappear. Some rise to the surface again, 
others flow under the sea, through which their waters 
are often forced upward in glistening springs. Elisee 
Reclus remarks that " in the Jardines, so named from 
the verdure-clad islets strewn like gardens amid the 
blue waters, springs of fresh water bubble up from the 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 23 

deep, flowing probably in subterranean galleries from 
the main-land." 

Of these disappearing streams one of the most re- 
markable is the Rio San Antonio, which drains the 
lake of Ariguanabo, and which, after passing through 
the town of San Antonio de los Banos, sinks into the 
earth at the foot of a spreading ceiba tree, and fails to 
reappear. Various similar streams might be named, 
among them the Jatibonico of the North, which, after 
vanishing, rises again in a series of tumbling cascades. 
The short stream called the Moa forms a superb cas- 
cade 300 feet in height, and disappears in a cavern to 
reach the surface again at a lower level. 

The Falls of the Rosario, in the province of Pinar 
del Rio, are notable for their beauty. In the same 
province the excavating waters have given rise to an 
imposing natural bridge. Elsewhere these w^aters 
have left evidences of their former labors in large 
caverns, of which Cuba has a remarkable number, 
many of them with magnificent stalactites. These In- 
clude the cave of Cotilla, near Havana, the celebrated 
caves of Bellamar, near Matanzas, of San Jose de los 
Remedios, of Monte Libano, north of Guantanamo, 
and many others of less celebrity. 

THE COASTAL SYSTEM. 

Around great part of the circumference of Cuba ex- 
tends a series of thickly grouped islets and reefs, esti- 
mated at 1300 in all, which stand decidedly in the way 
of easy navigation, and cut off about half the coast 
from free access. These are of coral origin, being due 
to the same class of minute creatures that has covered 
the mountains and plains of Cuba with a thick layer 



24 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

of limestone. They constitute four distinct groups, 
two on the north and two on the south. From Cape 
San Antonio to Bahia Honda extends the Guani- 
guanico archipelago, which includes the dangerous 
Red Banks. Farther east, stretching from Cardenas 
to Nuevitas, lies the Sabana Camaguey, composed of a 
multitude of keys and reefs, whose eastern section was 
named by Columbus Jardin del Rey (King's Garden). 
This title of Jardin has been given to both the south- 
ern groups. Extending from Cape Cruz to Trinidad 
lie the Jardines de la Reina (Queen's Gardens), and 
from Cienfuegos nearly to the western end of the 
island extends the archipelago of the Canarreos, which 
includes the large Isla de Pinos and the Jardines and 
Jardinellos (Little Islands), that group of green islets 
in whose midst the sunken waters from the far-ofif 
highlands rise in fresh springs, which bubble up 
through the salt waves. 

Amid this host of islands there is only one of im- 
portance for its size, the Isla de Pinos (Isle of Pines), 
to which Columbus gave the name of Evangelist 
Island. This measures about sixty miles in its greatest 
length from east to west, and fifty-five miles in maxi- 
mum breadth. It lies about sixty miles from Bata- 
bano, the nearest port on the main-land of Cuba. In 
the north its surface is mountainous, rising to a con- 
siderable height and thickly wooded, while the soil is 
of high fertility. In the south it is low and barren. 
Between the two sections extends a swamp, across 
which sweep the tides, dividing the island practically 
into two. These sections are connected by a stone 
causeway built on some rock ledges at the water level. 

While the portions of the Cuban coast free from 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 25 

island screens present bold, high outlines, broken by 
the narrow entrances to many capacious harbors, the 
sections sheltered by the archipelagoes are usually low 
and marshy, and thickly covered by mangrove and 
other water plants of the tropics. The Zapata, a great 
shoe-shaped marsh on the southern coast, is more 
than sixty miles long, its flat surface being at sea level 
and most of its extent consisting of impassable quag- 
mires, though here and there the surface is firm 
enough to support a grove of trees. Winding through 
its mangrove thickets may be seen the channels of 
former rivers, and in its depths He numerous lakes, 
some open to the sun, while the surface of others is 
covered with the leaves and flowers of innumerable 
tropical lilies. Breakwaters of sand, thrown up by the 
waves, here and there enclose the stagnant marsh 
waters, and ofi the coast the coral animals are busy 
building a wall which will in time shut in this broad 
expanse from the sea. 

THE FOREST REGION. 

Much the greater part of the island of Cuba is 
covered with forest of the most tropical luxuriance of 
growth. Innumerable vines bind tree to tree with 
their tough cordage, and passage can be made only 
by constant use of the ever-present machete, that in- 
valuable implement of the rural Cuban. Outside the 
range of virgin forest are extensive regions covered 
with stunted trees and lofty grasses, whose shelter was 
abundantly made use of during the insurrection for 
concealment and ambush. 

Of the area of Cuba nearly 20,000.000 acres, about 
two-thirds of the whole, remain in a state of unoccu- 



26 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

pied wildness, nearly 13,000,000 acres of this extensive 
territory being covered with primeval forest. These 
broad woodlands contain numbers of trees of high 
economic value, of which we shall speak later. The 
dominating plant is the royal palm, found not only 
throughout the forests, but in all parts of the island, 
to whose landscapes its columnar trunk and gracefully 
spreading leafy top give an ever-present charm. Na- 
ture showers beauty on a Cuban landscape, and over 
all its lower forms towers the royal palm, usually from 
fifty to seventy feet in height, but occasionally gaining 
an altitude of more than 100 feet. Planted alternately 
with the mango and other tropical trees, these palms 
compose on the caf dales, or coffee estates, avenues 
miles in length, forming aisles of surpassing beauty, 
in which, '' overtopping the other trees, their sweep- 
ing noble arches do not exclude the sunlight, which 
pours through the intervals as through the windows 
of a cathedral and illuminates the green solemnity of 
the majestic colonnades." 

GEOLOGY. 

There is excellent reason for the belief that Cuba 
was at one time connected with the neighboring main- 
land, since fossil animals of a recent geological period, 
such as the megalonyx, mastodon, etc., are found both 
here and in the United States. It is believed that these 
animals made their way into Cuba by the route of 
Florida, to which the island was then connected. Fer- 
nandez de Castro, a geologist of experience, concludes 
that all the great geological divisions are represented 
in Cuba, though the best marked strata are those of 
the tertiary period, all of whose formations are abun- 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 27 

dantly rq^resented by fossil species. Still later are 
the post-pliocene beds, containing the fossils above 
mentioned as similar to those found in the United 
States, and argillaceous and calcareous deposits whose 
fossils represent species still living. To the same late 
period belong the very abundant conglomerates of 
lime, iron, and metamorphic rocks, and the shell de- 
posits which exist in considerable abundance in cer- 
tain localities. 

Most valuable of the deposits is the external layer 
of vegetable mould known as Ticrra Colorado (red 
earth), which contains much iron and forms an ad- 
mirable soil for the culture of tobacco and sugar-cane. 
In Pinar del Rio and some other localities are sili- 
cious alluvial deposits, of the greatest value in the to- 
bacco culture. The limestone deposit, of which we 
have spoken as composing mountain masses and 
forming a layer over the plains, is being added to 
steadily along the coast, whose numerous islets and 
keys are the work of myriads of coral animals. These 
creatures are still actively at work building new reefs 
and joining adjacent islets by bridges of coral rock. 

Through this wide-spread layer of limestone the 
older formations frequently protrude, — granites, sie- 
nites, diorites, serpentines, and other ancient rocks 
being so abundant as to create the impression that 
they form the basis upon which all the later forma- 
tions of the island are laid. Of these the serpentine is 
the most abundant, covering large areas, and attain- 
ing in some localities a thickness of 600 feet. In it are 
rich mines of copper, and in some places petroleum 
runs out of its clefts. In eastern Cuba abundant 
springs of this valuable mineral oil are found. 



28 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

CLIMATE. 

The climate of the low coast lands of Cuba is that 
of the torrid zone, whose northern boundary runs just 
north of the island. In the higher interior the torrid 
heats decline, and the climate is more in accordance 
with that of the temperate zones. As is general in 
countries on the borders of the tropics, the year is 
divided into a wet and a dry season, so called, though 
rain falls in every month of the year. The insular situ- 
ation causes much precipitation, and at all seasons the 
humidity of the atmosphere averages over eighty 
degrees. 

The specifically hot and wet season extends through 
half the year, from the beginning of May to the end 
of October, during which thunder-storms are of al- 
most daily occurrence, and the downpour of rain is 
at times of great violence. Throughout this period 
the temperature is high and varies. little day or night, 
the mean temperature of Havana in August being 
about 82° F. In some districts it reaches 90°. The 
only alleviation is the refreshing sea breeze, which rises 
daily in the afternoon, and redeems, in a measure, the 
great warmth and humidity of the atmosphere. 

During the remaining six months of the year, called 
the dry season by contrast, the rains are moderate and 
the temperature considerably reduced, Havana having 
a mean, during this period, of about 70° F. In the 
interior, at elevations of 300 feet or more, the tem- 
perature is considerably lower, and occasionally falls 
to the freezing point, while in the highlands frost is 
not uncommon. Yet the average temperature varies 
only about eleven degrees between the hottest and the 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 29 

coldest months. The mean annual rainfall is nearly 
fifty-two inches, of which the eastern section of the 
island receives somewhat the greater portion. 

The prevailing winds are the easterly trades, though 
cool north winds visit the western section in the dry 
season, lasting for forty-eight hours or less and caus- 
ing a marked decrease of temperature. Hurricanes 
are occasionally disastrous, but are less frequent in 
Cuba than in the islands farther south, five or six 
years sometimes passing without such a storm. That 
of 1846 caused great destruction in Havana, and in 
1894 the fruit industry in the northeast section was 
almost exterminated. 

Cuba has no diseases peculiar to itself, but shares 
with the American tropics generally their scourge of 
yellow fever, which makes its appearance annually 
during the wet season in the seaports and coast re- 
gions, where it rages with virulence, causing great 
loss of hfe. It is, however, unknown in the interior; 
and there is excellent reason to believe that its prev- 
alence in the coast cities is the fault of the people 
themselves, — a natural result of their lack of sanitary 
care. With cities properly cleaned and with due at- 
tention to the laws of health this dread disease might 
quite disappear. 

Malarial fevers and dysentery are very common in 
many parts of the island, and great care is needed by 
visitors to Cuba to avoid getting the clothes or the 
body wet, or sleeping out of doors without protection 
from the night dews. Of course, care is requisite in 
drinking only pure water, against over-indulgence in 
some of the island fruits, and in personal cleanliness. 
Leprosy is probably more common in Cuba than in 



30 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the Hawaiian Islands, but the leading physicians say 
that there is no danger of a clean white man being 
affected. In the Cuban hospitals, however, the idea 
of separation of patients affected with contagious dis- 
eases from others does not seem to exist, a state of 
affairs which must lend much aid to the propagation 
of disease. 

The dangerous result of unacclimated people from 
the north visiting Cuba in the wet season was strik- 
ingly shown in the war of 1898, the deaths in the 
American army from malarial and yellow fever and 
other diseases far exceeding those from battle. This 
was, no doubt, in considerable measure due to un- 
sanitary conditions. In Santiago and its vicinity the 
very idea of sanitation had not been born. Since then 
this city, under American control, has, for the first 
time in its existence, been thoroughly cleaned. The 
effect of this new state of affairs upon its health condi- 
tions remains to be learned, but can scarcely fail to be 
highly advantageous. 

In conclusion, it may be said for the climate of 
Cuba that on an average rain falls on not more than 
ten days in the month, and rarely on more than twenty 
days in the rainiest month, while an all-day rain oc- 
curs on only seventeen days in the year. The rains 
are generally in the afternoon, the mornings being 
usually sunny. 

The abundant rains in the warm season, the occur- 
rence of sunshine on almost every day, and the pleni- 
tude of refreshing breezes give Cuba a remarkable ex- 
uberance of vegetation and a climate unsurpassed in 
the tropics. The great transparency of the atmos- 
phere adds much to the beauty of the landscapes, and 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 31 

yields a peculiar brilliance to the starlight and a soft, 
mellow glow to the sunsets, whose only fault is their 
tropical brevity. The surrounding seas are of un- 
usual beauty, with their deep green color variegated 
with shifting opaline lustres, presenting gleams of 
such rich and varied hues as are never seen in the 
waters of the north. 



IIL NATURAL PRODUCTIONS* 

FOREST TREES* 

The vast forests of Cuba, so dense as to be almost 
impenetrable, many of their deep recesses having 
never been traversed, contain numerous species of 
valuable trees, frequently luxuriant in growth and 
magnificent in dimensions. Hard-wood trees, of high 
value for cabinet work and other purposes, are very 
abundant, including the mahogany, ebony, cedar, log- 
wood, iron-wood, lignum-vitse and various other spe- 
cies. It is said that there are in all more than forty 
varieties of fine cabinet woods. The palm, with more 
than thirty species, is everywhere present. The ubi- 
quitous and useful cocoa-nut palm extends its realm 
from mountain to coast-lands, and the stately royal 
palm (Pahna real) is found in all localities, especially 
in the west. This queen of the south is associated in 
the Isle of Pines with a tree characteristic of the north, 
the pine, so common there as to give its name to the 
island, in which it shares the surface with the ma- 
hogany and the palm. Something peculiar in the soil 
causes this tree to flourish here, so far from its native 
regions. It also occurs in Pinar del Rio, whose name 
likewise is derived from it. 

All the majestic trees of the Mexican lowlands, so 

famous for the beauty of their foliage and the splendor 

of their flowers, give grace and charm to the Cuban 

coasts; while in the forests, in addition to the useful 

32 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 33 

trees named, are various dye-woods, an abundance o! 
ferns, and vines in great variety, some of these of such 
strength as to strangle the trees which they clasp in 
their insinuating embrace. It is the intricacy of these 
clinging vines, or lianas, that renders the forests im- 
possible to traverse without the constant aid of the 
machete. " Only those who have seen a tropical 
forest can form an idea of these dark woods, with their 
giant trees, thorny bushes, cactus plants, and trailing 
lianas, gracefully pendant, swinging from branch to 
branch, and wound around trunk and limb of trees 
in most wonderful tracery, beautiful to the view, but 
almost impossible to pass through." Troublesome as 
they are, the splendor of their foliage and flowers gives 
rich warrant for their existence to the lover of beauty. 

Among the most stately and striking of the trees 
of Cuba is the ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, — the latter 
name being derived from its large seed-pod, which is 
packed with cotton-like fibre of a soft, silky texture. 
This imposing tree often attains a height of a hundred 
feet, its massive trunk, with its buttress of exposed 
roots, reaching upward for fifty feet without a branch, 
while its dense canopy of foliage affords complete 
protection from the sun. A smaller tree, but one of 
marked attraction, is the tamarind, with its delicate, 
deep-green foliage and the chocolate-colored pods 
which hang in thick loops from every branch. 

Eminent among the trees of Cuba, alike for beauty 
and utility, are the palms, which give a tropical tone 
to every landscape. And chief among the numerous 
species of these is the royal palm, a tree native to the 
island, and everywhere present with its trunk like a 
Corinthian column and its plume-like crown of ver- 

3 



34 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

dant foliage. Here it stands in solitary dignity, there 
clusters in shady groves ; now grouped in the valley, 
now rising above the trees of the forest, now lifting its 
plumed crest upon a wooded mountain summit, now 
rising in long avenues like the stately pillars of some 
grand temple. It is as useful as beautiful, there being 
no part of it that is not adapted to human purposes. 
The wood yields boards excellent for building pur- 
poses, the hard outer shell of the trunk being readily 
split into strips. The roots are claimed to possess 
medicinal properties. The leaves are used for thatch, 
and their long, semicircular stem, which embraces the 
trunk of the tree, has a variety of uses. It becomes 
pliable when soaked in water, and may be shaped into 
a water-bucket, a wash-basin, or other receptacle. 
The bud of the central spire, from which the leaves 
expand, consists of a tender substance which is very 
palatable as a food, either raw, cooked as a vegetable, 
or made into a preserve with sugar. 

FOOD PLANTS AND FRUITS. 

Food plants exist in the greatest abundance and 
variety. Much the most important of alimentary 
plants is the plantain, with the choicest variety of 
whose fruit we are so familiar in the banana. Next 
in order of usefulness comes the cassava or manioc, 
with its sweet and bitter varieties. Of these the root 
is used, — the sweet being eaten as a vegetable, and the 
bitter, after its poisonous juice is extracted, being 
converted into bread. The sweet root is as mealy as 
the potato when boiled, while the bitter is the source 
of the well-known starchy food known as tapioca. 

Other farinaceous roots include the sweet potato 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 35 

and the yam, though these are less used than in other 
West India islands. Maize or Indian corn is indigen- 
ous, and is grown in considerable quantities, — the 
green leaves being employed as fodder and the grain 
as food for man and beast. The cacao-bean plant is 
also grown and rice is extensively cultivated. Very 
little attention, however, is paid to horticulture, and 
the ordinary garden vegetables are little used except 
in the dry season for the supply of Havana and the 
other large cities. There is cultivated, however, a 
variety of beans, the favorite being known as the gar- 
banzo. 

Cuba is rich in fruits, possessing almost all those of 
tropical and subtropical lands. The most esteemed 
among these are the pine-apple and the orange, the 
latter in several favorite varieties. To the orange may 
be added the lime and the lemon, bearing blossoms, 
green and ripe fruit at the same time, and filling the 
air with their fragrance. The banana grows every- 
where and bears with prodigal profuseness, its great 
bunches of green fruit ripening as well off the tree as 
on it. Other well-known fruits are the fig, the pome- 
granate, the tamarind, and the guava, — the last being 
converted into a highly esteemed jelly or preserve, 
eaten everywhere in Cuba and famous all over the 
world. The tamarind is universal on the island; a tall 
and handsome tree, the acid pulp of its bean-like fruit, 
when steeped in water, yielding a cooling and deli- 
cious beverage, much used in the tropics. Another 
fruit tree, equally wide-spread, is the cocoa-nut palm, 
which grows to the height of fifty feet or more; its 
long drooping leaves revealing beneath their bases the 
great bunches of nuts weighing as much as three 



36 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

hundred pounds. When nearly ripe, the nut yields a 
pleasant, cooling, and healthful beverage, much used 
in Cuba. 

There are many other delicious fruits, too perish- 
able to be transported from the island. These include 
the mango, zapota, rose-apple, mammee, sapotilla, 
custard-apple, and others. The mango, an exotic, yet 
nearly as abundant as the banana, grows upon a hand- 
some tree, with shining, dark-green foliage; its yellow 
fruit, about three times the size of an egg-plum, grow- 
ing in long pendant bunches. It is very juicy when 
ripe, and is an especial favorite with the negroes. 
Growing wild in the forest about Santiago, it formed 
a somewhat perilous addition to the diet of our troops 
during the recent campaign. The sapotilla is a tree 
of attractive aspect, its leaves being glossy and 
feathery, its blossoms white and bell-shaped, with a 
perfume like that of the apple-blossom. It bears a 
round fruit of about the size of a peach, with a rough, 
dark skin. It is delicious when fully ripe, the pulp 
melting in the mouth like a custard. The custard- 
apple has a tough skin and a subacid flavor, its pulp 
being full of little black seeds. It weighs a pound or 
more, is soft and juicy, and is much used for flavoring 
purposes. The star-apple is so named from the star- 
like figure shown by its centre when cut through. It 
has a green interior even when ripe, but is exquisite 
in flavor, being eaten with a spoon out of the outer 
rind. The rose-apple grows on a handsome, sym- 
metrical tree, with oval glossy leaves, and large, white, 
fragrant blossoms. The fruit is of the size and shape 
of a large peach, smooth of skin, and cream-colored 
throughout. Its pulp is firm and has so strong a 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 37 

flavor of attar-of-rose as to render it somewhat un- 
palatable. It is much used to flavor soups and pud- 
dings. The mammee is a large fruit grov^ing on high, 
umbrageous trees, solid in texture, and with a flavor 
approaching that of the peach, though less delicate. 
When ripe, it is light yellow in color. 

While many of these fruits grow on more or less 
lofty trees, the pine-apple, one of the best of them all, 
is the humblest in its manner of growth, — a field of 
pine-apples being little more attractive than a field of 
cabbages. It grows single upon a low stem, reaching 
some twenty inches in height. The plant bears but 
one apple at a time, but will yield an annual crop for 
three or four years. Cuba possesses, according to a 
recent botanical catalogue, a total of 3350 indigenous 
species of flowering plants, in addition to the many 
that have been introduced. 

The chief cultivated plants of the island are three 
in number, — sugar-cane, tobacco, and cofifee. Of 
these tobacco is a native, the others have been intro- 
duced. The cultivation of only one of these plants is 
to-day in a promising condition. Coffee, introduced 
in the eighteenth century, and cultivated largely after 
the revolution in Hayti, has greatly fallen off, and now 
makes a very small figure in the exports. The de- 
mand for sugar has also largely declined, in conse- 
quence of the competition of beet-root sugar; while 
the destructive activity of the insurgents has, for the 
time being, ruined the plantations. Tobacco is at 
present the only flourishing product, its superior 
quality making a steady demand for it in all parts of 
the world. Under new conditions, however, the profit- 
able culture of sugar is likely to be restored. 



38 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Cotton was at one time a product of importance, 
and new attention was paid to it during the American 
civil war, but its culture met with no great success, 
and it is now but little grown. 

ANIMALS. 

Cuba possesses only two indigenous quadrupeds, 
one a rodent of about the size of a rabbit, being from 
twelve to eighteen inches in length; it resembles 
a rat in general appearance. This is known as the 
agouti (jutia or hutia), is black in color and makes its 
home in hollow or cleft trees, on whose leaves and 
fruits it feeds. Its flesh formed part of the diet of the 
Cubans during their insurrection, though it is insipid 
in taste. The other native mammal is one of the in- 
sectivorous class, the solenodon, the other representa- 
tives of whose family are confined to Madagascar. 
The swamps contain a few deer, but these are thought 
to be the descendants of animals introduced from the 
continent. The flying squirrel, the dormouse, and 
various other quadrupeds add animation to the land- 
scape. 

There is no lack of reptiles. Lizards are abundant, 
of various species, the large iguana being common. 
The dangerous crocodile and cayman occur, and tur- 
tles are numerous along the coasts, frequenting the 
reefs and shallows and the sandy beaches. Serpents 
are not numerous. One of these, the maja, is of large 
size, attaining a length of twelve to fourteen feet and 
a circumference of eighteen or twenty inches. It is 
harmless to man, and is said to lodge in the roofs of 
country houses and prey on the poultry. The jiiba, 
a species about six feet in length, is more vicious in 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 39 

disposition, but there are no venomous snakes. The 
manatee, known famiharly as the sea-cow or cow- 
whale, is found in the waters of Cuba, as in the tropical 
waters of the Atlantic in general. Land crabs are so 
common as to be something of a nuisance, appearing 
frequently in large numbers, and crossing the island 
in troops from north to south every spring at the 
opening of the rainy season. Bats, some of them 
huge in size, form an occasionally unpleasant element 
of the fauna. , 

Cuba is abundantly provided with birds, there being 
more than 200 species indigenous to the island, many 
of them of great beauty of plumage. They include 
only a few birds of prey, important among which are 
the vulture and the turkey-buzzard. These are the 
licensed scavengers of the island, and are protected in 
their useful labors by the law, paying for their im- 
munity by their services in the removal of putrefying 
flesh. But for them, the death-rate of Cuba might be 
much higher than it is, the people being ignorant or 
heedless of the first laws of health. 

Of the more familiar birds may be named the blue- 
bird, cat-bird, and robin, while wild pigeons are pres- 
ent in great variety, blue, gray, and white of hue. By 
the waters of the lagoons patiently watches the red 
flamingo; the gaudy paroquet makes his harsh voice 
heard in the forests; here is the brightly variegated 
English lady-bird, the golden-winged woodpecker, 
the indigo-bird, and many others, most brilliant 
among them the tiny humming-birds, of which some 
sixty species are found, of every variety of metallic 
hue. 

The small streams of the island, as well as the bays 



40 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and inlets, are well supplied with fish, but food-fish 
are not abundant off the Greater Antilles, though 
they thrive in the Bahamas. Shell-fish are numerous, 
the oysters, which cling to the branches of the man- 
grove trees, being abundant but small, and lacking the 
delicious flavor of those of northern seas. Insect life 
occurs in the ordinary tropical exuberance, and em- 
braces a number of those pests that go to render life 
an annoyance. These noxious forms include the 
everywhere-present mosquito, the sand fly, the chigoe 
or jigger, a biting ant called the vivajagua, spiders 
whose bite produces fever, and scorpions. The last 
are less malignant than those of Europe. Chief among 
the useful insects is the bee, whose wax and honey are 
products of considerable commercial value. Fireflies 
are numerous and of various species. Of the large 
cucujo, a dozen placed in a wicker cage are said to 
aflford light enough to read by; while a calabash 
pierced with holes and containing from fifteen to 
twenty of these insects often serves the poorer people 
as a sort of lantern. They are easily kept by feeding 
them on the soft pulp of the sugar-cane, being very 
fond of sweets. The belles of Cuba do not fail to em- 
ploy these brilliantly luminous insects as ornaments, 
wearing them in their hair, in necklaces, or attached 
to their dress, which can be readily done without in- 
jury to the insect. Butterflies, many of them of great 
beauty, are very numerous, there being not less than 
300 distinct species. 

Among the wild animals are two escaped from 
domestic service, the dog and cat, which in their feral 
state form staple annoyances of the island. The wild 
dog, known as the pcrro jibaro, has regained its native 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 41 

fierceness and carnivorous habits, though it is less 
dangerous than the wolf, since it never attacks man 
unless pressed in the chase. These dogs, whatever 
their original color may have been, uniformly become 
of a dirty black hue, with a very rough coat. They 
lurk in the forests and do much damage among the 
cattle. Earnest efforts have been made to extirpate 
them, but in spite of this they increase in numbers. 
The cat, known in its wild state as the gato jibaro, 
pays its chief attention to the poultry yard. 

Of domestic animals, the ox, horse, and pig are 
the most numerous, cattle-raising being one of the 
leading industries. Horses are bred largely in certain 
localities. Sheep, goats, and mules are less numerous, 
though of late years the great Spanish jackass has 
been introduced with some success for the purpose of 
breeding mules. Of domestic birds may be named 
the common fowl, the goose, turkey, peacock, and 
pigeon. Of these the first named is everywhere raised; 
in city and country alike. 

METALS. 

It was the hope of finding rich deposits of the 
precious metals that first attracted the Spaniards to 
Cuba. Gold was sent to Spain by the early settlers, 
with no statement as to its source; but it is now be- 
lieved to have been the accumulated wealth of the 
natives, wrung from them by violence and torture, 
since no important source of this valued metal has 
since been discovered. Gold-bearing sands are found 
in the rivers Holguin, Escambray, and others, and 
gold has been obtained from the workings of Aga- 
bama and Sagua la Grande rivers ; but the cost of ob- 



42 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

taining it exceeds its value, and Cuba gives no promise 
of importance in its yiefd of this metal. 

Silver has been found, in conjunction with copper, 
at Villa Clara; specimens of the ore, worked in 1827, 
yielding more than seventy-five ounces to the ton of 
ore. Yet despite this promising show, the mining of 
silver here has not been a success. Silver, associated 
with mercury, has also been found in the Isle of Pines. 
For a long period in the past copper continued the 
most important of Cuban metals. It exists in several 
sections of the island, the most valuable deposits being 
in Santiago de Cuba. The rich veins at Cobre, near 
the city of Santiago, were opened in the seventeenth 
century and continued to yield until late in the 
eighteenth, when they were abandoned. Their lack 
of profit was due to the imperfect methods of working 
the ore, for the heaps of refuse material, whe.n ex- 
amined by English mining experts at a later date, 
proved so rich in metal that they were sent to England 
to be smelted, and the old workings were reopened. 
From 1828 to 1840, copper to the value of from 
$2,000,000 to $3,000,000 was shipped annually from 
this district to the United States; and the mines con- 
tinued profitable until 1868, when the outbreak of the 
insurrection put an end to operations. The shafts, 
from 900 to 1200 feet deep and extending below sea- 
level, subsequently filled with water, which has efifec- 
tively stopped operations. Much copper remains, as 
may be judged from the fact that it has proved profita- 
ble to pump the mine water into sluices containing 
scrap iron, upon which the copper held in solution is 
deposited. 

One of the largest veins of copper in the world is 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 43 

said to exist in this district, in which shafts were for- 
merly sunk to the depth of over iioo feet. It is be- 
heved to be still very rich, and, despite the troubles 
from water, is likely again to be opened through the 
aid of American capital. There are a number of other 
mines, nearly all of which have been worked in the 
past, and most of which of¥er good prospects to future 
operators. 

Iron exists in considerable abundance in several 
sections of Cuba, in some of which it is profitably 
mined. One of the richest localities is said to be the 
Cubitas Mountain region, — the seat of government of 
the recent insurrection, — in which iron ores of several 
kinds occur in enormous quantities. Also along the 
route surveyed for the designed railway from Santa 
Clara to Santiago almost inexhaustible beds of 
chromic iron ore exist. It is said, also, that cop- 
per, nickel, and cobalt exist in large deposits in the 
province of Puerto Principe; but this remains to be 
proved. The Cubitas mines would probably now be 
worked but for the insurrection, an American com- 
pany having been formed for that purpose. They 
promise well, and the necessary railway connections 
can be easily made. 

At present the only important workings are those in 
the Sierra Maestra Mountains, near the city of San- 
tiago de Cuba. Here the metal exists in great and 
promising abundance. Two American associations — 
the Juragua and the Spanish-American Iron Com- 
panies — are here engaged in mining, employing from 
800 to 1400 men. The ores, of mixed brown and red 
hematite, are of unusual richness, yielding from sixty- 
five to sixty-eight per cent, of metal, and this of supe- 



44 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

rior quality, being very free from sulphur and phos- 
phorus. From 30,000 to 50,000 tons of ore are shipped 
monthly to the United States, where the iron is used in 
the manufacture of steel, much of it for armor-plate. 
There are numerous undeveloped veins of equal rich- 
ness in the vicinity of Santiago, several of them be- 
longing to the Sigua Iron Company, a Philadelphia 
organization, not now in operation. 

The Sierra Maestra Mountains also contain man- 
ganese ore, various deposits existing between San- 
tiago and Manzanillo. The veins are large and the 
ore promising, yielding in some cases fifty-eight per 
cent, of metal of superior quality. A recent statement 
reports for the island one hundred and thirty-eight 
mining claims of iron, eighty-eight of manganese, 
fifty-three of copper, five of gold, three of zinc, two of 
lead, two of mercury, one of chrome iron, and one of 
antimony. But these exist largely on paper, and while 
many of the properties covered are rich in metals, the 
value of others remains in doubt. 

2WIINERALS* 

Various opinions exist concerning the presence of 
coal, which has been claimed to occur in abundance 
in many localities, alike in the mountains and in the 
lowlands. A deposit near Guanabacoa, in the vicinity 
of Havana, which has been mined to some small ex- 
tent, indicates under analysis a very inferior quality 
of coal, and is probably merely asphaltum. The large 
deposits stated to exist in Santiago province await in- 
vestigation, and it is very doubtful if they are not 
rather lignite than true coal. 

Much of what has been claimed as coal is evidently 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 45 

asphaltum, which near the coast often becomes semi- 
hquid, resembhng naphtha or petroleum. This native 
bitumen was used by the discoverers of the island as 
pitch to repair their ships. Asphaltum occurs in all 
the provinces of the island with the exception of Pinar 
del Rio. Considerable deposits of it exist near the 
cities of Villa Clara and Cardenas. The Villa Clara 
bed is some twelve feet in thickness and resembles 
lignite. For forty years past it has furnished the ma- 
terial for the gas supply of the city, and shipments of 
it have been made reaching 10,000 tons per year. 

The Cardenas deposits exist in a peculiar situation, 
lying at the bottom of the bay, covered by a consider- 
able depth of water. There are four of these deposits 
near the city, one of which yields a very fine grade of 
the material, used for varnish-making in the United 
States. The water is from eighty to one hundred and 
twenty-five feet in depth, and the asphaltum is ob- 
tained by dropping on it a long iron bar from a 
moored vessel, the pieces broken of¥ being brought up 
by naked divers, who gather them into scoop-nets. 
More than a ton is thus obtained daily, the substance 
being replaced from below as mined. 

There are three other deposits of lower grade, suit- 
able for paving or roofing. The largest of these is 
near Diana Key, fifteen miles from Cardenas, at a 
depth of twelve feet. During the past twenty-five 
years it has yielded more than 20,000 tons, and shows 
no^igns of exhaustion, the holes made in it constantly 
filling up from beneath. Petroleum exists in a similar 
manner under Havana harbor, through whose waters 
it bubbles up. It is found to trickle freely from the 
rocks at a point thirty-three miles east of Manzanillo, 



46 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and even to appear at points in the streets of that city. 
It occurs similarly in other localities, though no bor- 
ings or other tests of its quantity have been made. 

Cuba is rich in marbles of excellent quality, varying 
considerably in color and frequently susceptible of a 
rich polish. These are found in the provinces gen- 
erally, but most abundantly in the Isle of Pines, which 
yields many varieties noted for their beauty. A thick 
slate, suitable for floors and pavements, is obtained in 
quarries near Havana, and slate of finer quality in the 
Isle of Pines. The true mineral wealth of the island 
of Cuba is yet unknown, through lack of sufficient in- 
terest in and knowledge of mineralogy among the in- 
habitants, and future exploration may develop rich 
deposits in unsuspected localities. 

Mineral springs are numerous, and those of San 
Diego, Madringa, and Guanabacoa have attained 
some degree of celebrity. The last named, being 
within a few miles of Havana, is a place of common 
resort, but difficulty of access stands in the way of the 
others becoming popular. The hot springs of the Isle 
of Pines are rapidly growing famous, and the village 
of Santa Fe, where they are situated, yearly attracts 
many health seekers to its curative waters. The num- 
ber of cures claimed for these waters is surprisingly 
large. 

Salt is obtained in quantities from the bordering 
keys or islets, along whose margins 3re many natural 
Salinas (salt pans). These are shallow depressions 
which retain the salt water, to be evaporated by the 
sun. Many hundreds of tons of salt are annually ob- 
tained from the salinas along the inlet of Majana and 
those of Chaco. 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 47 

The richest of the provinces of Cuba in mineral 
wealth is Santiago de Cuba, which embraces the most 
mountainous districts of the island. Its hills yield 
gold, iron, copper, manganese, mercury, zinc, alabas- 
ter, marble, rock crystal, and asphalt; while its 
caverns often contain beautiful stalactites. As yet the 
mineral riches have been developed chiefly in the im- 
mediate vicinity of the capital city of the province, and 
little is known regarding the possible wealth in min- 
erals of the intricate system of the cuchillas and the 
interior sierras. 



IV. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS- 
GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION. 

The close of the insurrection of 1868-78 was fol- 
lowed by a series of so-called reforms, one feature of 
which was the division of the country into the six prov- 
inces whose names we have already given. Each of 
these provinces has for capital the city whose name it 
has taken, the whole being divided into a number of 
judicial districts, twenty-six in all. As these are fre- 
quently spoken of without mention of the province 
in which they are situated, it is desirable to specify 
them. 

Beginning at the west, we find in the province of 
Pinar del Rio the districts of Pinar del Rio, Guanajay, 
Guane, and San Cristobal; in that of Havana the dis- 
tricts of Havana, Bejucal, Guanabacoa, Guines, Ja- 
ruco, Marianao, and San Antonio de los Baiios; in 
that of Matanzas those of Matanzas, Alfonso XH., 
Cardenas, and Colon; in Santa Clara those of Santa 
Clara, Sagua la Grande, Cienfuegos, and Juan de los 
Remedios; in Puerto Principe those of Puerto Prin- 
cipe, and Moron; and in Santiago de Cuba those of 
Santiago de Cuba, Baracoa, Guantanamo, Holguin, 
and Manzanillo. In each of these districts, named 
from its central city, justice has been administered, 
under the Spanish system, by an alcalde mayor, in 
association with the ordinary alcaldes or local judges. 

The ** reform" of 1878, under which the insurgents 
48 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 49 

were induced to enter into a treaty of peace, contained 
measures which would have been of considerable 
benefit to the island if properly carried out. They in- 
cluded suflfrage under a property qualification, repre- 
sentation in the Cortes at Madrid, elective assembhes 
for the provinces and boards of aldermen for the cities, 
and other features which we do not need to mention, 
since they existed only on paper. Any possible bene- 
fit to the people from these changes in the political 
status was hindered by the maintenance of the cap- 
tain- (or governor-) general in his absolute authority. 
The representation in the Cortes was in a hopeless 
minority, the elections were manipulated in the in- 
terest of the* Spanish party, and the captain-general 
could suspend any legislative body or remove any 
mayor at will, so that he had complete control of the 
situation. The judicial system was similarly held in 
leading strings, since this powerful functionary had 
the power to overrule the decisions of any court, and 
even to suspend the execution of an order coming 
from the government of Spain itself. 

When in 1895, as a new measure of " reform" in re- 
sponse to the insurrection of that year, a " council of 
administration" was appointed seemingly as a check 
on the captain-general, the fatuous government of 
Spain took special pains to rob this council of even the 
shadow of power. The captain-general was given 
authority to suspend fourteen of the thirty members 
at will, and if the remaining sixteen proved trouble- 
some he could set aside all their acts and do as he 
pleased. Such a system held the very essence of des- 
potism, and as regards the Spanish system of colonial 
administration it will suffice further to quote the an- 

4 



50 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

cient adage, " Whom the gods wish to destroy they 
first make mad." 

DIVISIONS OF TERRITORY. 

The island of Cuba is divided in popular accepta- 
tion into four regions which do not agree very closely 
with the political districts. These are the Vuelta 
Abajo (the lower turn), Vuelta Arriba (the upper 
turn), Los Cinco Villas (the five towns) and Tierro 
Adentro (the interior). Of these popular divisions the 
Vuelta Abajo extends from Cape San Antonio to the 
meridian of Havana, the portion between this meri- 
dian and San Cristobal, in Pinar del Rio, being spe- 
cially known as Los Partidos. Within this district Hes 
the great tobacco region of Cuba, which yields the 
finest leaf in the world. The Vuelta Arriba lies be- 
tween Havana and Cienfuegos, and Los Cinco Villas 
between the latter city and Puerto Principe, The five 
towns (now cities) are Santa Clara, Sagua la Grande, 
Cienfuegos, Trinidad, and Remedios. This district is 
variable in its borders, being extended by some as far 
east as Holguin. Between it and the eastern end of 
the island lies the Tierro Adentro, which includes the 
chief mountainous regions. 

Other boundaries might be given for these districts, 
which are far from well defined and often overlap ; but 
this is a matter of no special importance, while the fre- 
quent use of these popular terms renders an acquaint- 
ance with their meaning desirable. 

In addition to the popular division, there are ec- 
clesiastical and political divisions of the island. For 
religious convenience Cuba is divided into two dio- 
ceses, the bishopric of Havana and the archbishopric 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 51 

of Santiago de Cuba. The bishop and archbishop 
divide the island about equally between them, the line 
of delimination crossing the province of Puerto Prin- 
cipe near its western boundary. 

The political division of the island is into six prov- 
inces, each of which bears the name of its capital 
city. These are, beginning at the west end, Pinar del 
Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Puerto Principe, 
and Santiago de Cuba. They are further subdivided 
into judicial districts and municipalities. Camaguey, 
often spoken of in accounts of the insurrection, and 
still in popular use, was the former name of the terri- 
tory now officially known as Puerto Principe. 



ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. 

The insurrection of 1868-78 did one good work, 
it enforced the abolition of that system of slavery 
which had existed in the island since its original set- 
tlement by Spain. Many slaves from the plantations 
had joined the rebels in arms, and, probably to pre- 
vent a continuance of this and to enlist the negroes in 
the Spanish cause, a law was passed on July 4, 1870, 
giving freedom to all slaves who had served with or 
assisted the troops. It was further enacted that all 
children of slaves born after that date should be free, 
and all slaves who had reached or should subsequently 
reach the age of sixty years. 

In the capitulation of 1878 the insurgents stipulated 
for the freedom of those slaves who had served in 
their ranks. This was agreed to, and the government 
of Spain, in its desire to pacify this considerable class 
of the population, went further, and on February 13, 



52 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

1880, passed a law abolishing slavery, the slaves to 
remain under a system of "patronage" until 1888. 
Two years before that period expired, on October 7, 
1886, a decree was promulgated declaring the patron- 
age at an end and the slaves free. Thus ended a sys- 
tem which had existed in Cuba for nearly four cen- 
turies. 

RELIGION. 

Religiously, Cuba, under the tutelage of Spain, was 
a true son of the mother country, intolerance being 
maintained m the colony as strictly as it had for many 
centuries been maintained at home. No religion but 
the Roman Catholic was permitted to exercise its rites 
upon the island. The Protestant, the Jew, the mem- 
ber of any Christian or non-Christian sect might live 
and breathe upon Cuban soil, but he must avoid any 
expression of religious opinion not sanctioned by the 
Church of Rome, and from end to end of the island 
could find no place of worship devoted to his special 
form of faith. The state religion was sustained at state 
expense, its costs being met out of the revenues of the 
island. It cannot be said that it was well sustained 
in any other way, the religious indifference of the 
people being evident to every traveller. The rites of 
the Church seem to have been little understood and 
less cared for by the easy-going population, while the 
priests troubled themselves not a whit about the spirit, 
so that the form of worship was observed and the 
revenues were duly paid over. 

Originally there was but one diocese in Cuba, that 
of Santiago, which included also Florida and Louisi- 
ana. The diocese of Havana was not constituted until 
1788. In 1804 the bishop of Santiago was elevated to 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 53 

the dignity of archbishop, an honor which has not 
been conferred upon the prelate at Havana. The ec- 
clesiastical government of the island is divided be- 
tween these two dignitaries of the Church, as already 
stated, and the minor clergy are appointed by them. 

The salaries of these prelates, under the old regime, 
were $18,000 annually. What they are likely to be 
under the new regime cannot now be stated. With the 
passing of Cuba from under the dominion of Spain the 
existence of a state-supported church in that island 
reached its end, and the intolerance that forbids any 
other form of worship can no longer be sustained. 
Politics and religion are alike in a transition stage, 
from which radically new conditions promise soon to 
emerge. 

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 

Cuba is very poorly provided with roads, the most 
of those dignified with the title being rude trails, which 
can rarely be traversed with comfort in the dry sea- 
son and are in a deplorable state during the rainy 
period. Over these roads merchandise is transported 
in heavy carts drawn by oxen or mules, or on the 
backs of pack mules where the roads are, as usual 
during the rainy season, impassable to wheeled vehi- 
cles. For passenger travel, outside the cities and ofif 
the lines of railway, the two-seated volante (flyer) has 
long been a favorite vehicle, and a very comfortable 
one considering the state of the roads, with the added 
advantage that it cannot be overturned. This is due 
to the great height of its two wheels, six or even seven 
feet, their wide distance apart, and the lowness of the 
carriage, which is slung from the axle by leather 
straps. The shafts are fifteen feet long, one horse 



54 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

being harnessed in them and the postiHon riding a 
second, which is attached by traces to the carriage. 
A third horse is sometimes harnessed on the other 
side of the shaft. This carriage is pecuHar to Cuba, 
and is very well adapted to its roads, though it has 
vanished from the cities. As formerly used in city 
streets, the volantes were often very expensively orna- 
mented by wealthy owners, with trimmings of silver 
and sometimes even of gold, while the negro postilion 
was attired in a scarlet jacket profusely decorated with 
gold and silver braid, high jack-boots with big silver 
buckles at the knees, and huge spurs, cutting a figure 
that must have made him the delight of small boys. 
At present it has been completely replaced by the 
victoria, now so abundant in the streets of Havana. 

Of the highways, the longest and best known is the 
Camino Central (central road), which extends from 
Havana to Santiago, passing through the intermediate 
interior towns. There are in all some two hundred 
and fifty miles of turnpikes or paved roads, known as 
calzadas. Of these the longest is that extending from 
Havana to San Cristobal and thence to Pinar del Rio. 
There are a few others varying from twelve to thirty 
miles in length, and a considerable number of short 
ones in and adjoining towns and cities. With these 
exceptions, the roads of the island are largely left to 
nature, and are rarely in condition for rapid and agree- 
able travel. 

The fact that most of the large towns of Cuba are 
seaports, and readily reached by water, has stood in 
the way of active railroad construction on the island. 
The total length of track is something over a thou- 
sand miles, made up principally of comparatively short 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 55 

lines connecting important places. The most popu- 
lous districts of the island are traversed by the lines of 
the United Railways Company, four in number, which 
run from Havana respectively to Matanzas, Bata- 
bano, La Union, and Guanajay. At these places con- 
nections are made with other roads. The Western 
Railway extends from Havana to Pinar del Rio, trav- 
ersing the Vuelta Abajo tobacco country. Railways 
run to inland cities from the several ports to the east- 
ward, including Matanzas, Cardenas, Sagua la Grande, 
Nuevitas, Caibarien, and Cienfuegos. Santa Clara, 
for instance, is connected with Cienfuegos on the 
south and Cardenas on the north by rail, Puerto Prin- 
cipe with Nuevitas, etc. One line, the Jucaro-Moron, 
built for military purposes, crosses the island in the 
province of Puerto Principe, following the course of 
the trocha which extended here from Jucaro in the 
north to Moron in the south. The Santiago Railway 
extends about thirty-three miles inland, winding 
through the mountain valleys and gradually ascend- 
ing, its terminus being at San Luis. There are short 
roads at various points, as at Guantanamo, from 
Havana to adjoining towns, etc., and with the main 
lines are connected many private roads, mostly nar- 
row gauge, built by the sugar planters for conven- 
ience in moving their crops. Street railways also 
traverse the streets of Havana and some other cities. 
It can scarcely be doubted that American enterprise 
will, before many years, extend railway communica- 
tion from Pinar del Rio to Santiago de Cuba along 
the axis of the island, passing through all the 
important intermediate towns and connecting by 
branches with the principal places off the main line. 



56 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Steamboats connect the coast ports, running with 
some regularity between Havana and all the principal 
places on the north coast and reaching Guantanamo 
and Santiago on the south. There are southern lines 
which ply east and west from Batabano, touching at 
all the ports of the south coast, and extending south- 
ward to the Isle of Pines. The railway from Havana 
to Batabano ofifers ready connection from the capital 
with these lines, so that Havana has water communi- 
cation, direct or indirect, with all the ports of the 
island. 

The Cuban coast towns have frequent communica- 
tion by steamship lines with Europe and the United 
States, there being lines from Havana to Spanish, 
French, and German ports and a monthly steamer 
from Vera Cruz to Southampton, touching at Havana. 
Key West is in semi-weekly communication with 
Havana; there are lines from New York to all the 
important Cuban ports, north and south, and mercan- 
tile lines from Philadelphia, New Orleans, and other 
cities to various Cuban ports. 

Havana, Santiago, and Cienfuegos have submarine 
telegraph connection with various countries, while 
wires run from these cities to all the towns and villages 
of any importance on the island, and a submarine cable 
connects Cienfuegos and Santiago. The International 
Ocean Telegraph Company connects Havana by cable 
with Florida; the West India and Panama Telegraph 
Company with Santiago, Jamaica, Porto Rico, the 
Lesser Antilles, and the Isthmus of Panama; and the 
French Submarine Cable Company with Santiago, 
Hayti, San Domingo, Venezuela, and Brazil. The 
extent and good service of these cable lines was shown 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 57 

by the great difficulty experienced in attempts to cut 
off telegraph communication with Spain during the 
recent war. 

The Cuban telegraph system is the property of the 
government, and the same is the case with the tele- 
phone system, which is widely in use in Havana, con- 
necting with all the public and most of the private 
buildings in the city and suburbs. The island pos- 
sesses a total of about 2300 miles of telegraph line. 



POPULATION. 

Cuba is rather sparsely peopled, considering its fer- 
tility and abundant capacity for food production. At 
the last regular census, that of 1887, the total popula- 
tion was 1,631,687. The estimated population in 1894 
was 1,723,000. Since that date, as a result of the in- 
surrection, with its fatal accompaniments of disease 
and starvation, there has been a marked decrease, 
several hundred thousand of the population having 
perished. The State of Pennsylvania, of practically 
the same area, has a population which may be esti- 
mated at 5,500,000, more than three times that of 
Cuba. But this is in great part a result of its manu- 
facturing interests and large city population. Vir- 
ginia, rural like Cuba, and closely approaching it in 
area, has approximately the same population. 

The population of Cuba has been steadily growing 
during the century. In 1787 it amounted to 176,167. 
From that date there was a rapid increase, the total 
reaching 635,604 in 1817, thirty years later. It 
reached the million mark in 1841. In 1867, just before 
the outbreak of the rebellion. It was 1,426,475. Its 



58 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

subsequent increase was for years checked by the 
troubles on the island. 

The population, as at present constituted, consists 
of five classes: — i. Natives of Spain — many of whom 
sought Cuba as office holders, while others were in- 
dustrial immigrants. 2. Cubans of Spanish descent. 
3. Whites of other origin. 4. Negroes of pure and 
of mixed blood. 5. Laborers from Eastern Asia. As 
regards the original Indian population, it had prob- 
ably disappeared by 1700, and perhaps considerably 
earlier. There are one or two villages in Santiago de 
Cuba whose inhabitants are claimed to be of Indian 
descent, but this claim lacks evidence, and it is ques- 
tionable if any trace of Indian blood runs in the veins 
of these people. 

Negro slavery has existed in Cuba since its earliest 
days, the negroes taking the place of the rapidly van- 
ishing aborigines. The laws of Spain controlling 
these people have not been severe, each slave had his 
own cabin and patch of ground and was allowed cer- 
tain hours for home tillage, and he was given the op- 
portunity of purchasing his freedom. Law, it is true, 
has not very well controlled the actions of the slave- 
holders, and the negroes have often been subjected to 
harsh treatment; yet there has long been a class of 
free negroes, who have during the present century in- 
creased with considerable rapidity. In 1810 the island 
held about 110,000 free negroes to 212,000 slaves. At 
the census of 1867 there were 248,703 free negroes to 
344,615 slaves. The act of gradual emancipation of 
1870 and the treaty of 1878 added largely to the num- 
ber of free negroes, and in 1879 the blacks num- 
bered 287,827 free to 171,097 slaves. At the date of 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 59 

the census of 1887 slavery was at an end, the negro 
population (all free) being 485,187, something over 
one-fourth the total population. These include, as in 
the United States, all that have negro blood in their 
veins, though they may be three-fourths or even in a 
larger proportion white. 

The manumitted negroes do not take kindly to 
small farming, and few of them have places of their 
own, they preferring to work on the sugar plantations 
or as laborers in the cities and towns. The mulattoes 
usually reside in the cities and follow some skilled oc- 
cupation, being engaged in the manufacture of shoes, 
cigars, or clothing, in carpentry, and in other artisan 
labors. 

Of the Cuban whites a considerable proportion, 
perhaps one-fifth, are natives of Spain. Members of 
this class, under the Spanish dominion, held all offi- 
cial positions of any value. The colonists from Spain 
have the credit of being far the most industrious peo- 
ple on the island, the next in order being the intelli- 
gent and educated Cubans, largely of recent Spanish 
descent. The enervating climate of the island seems 
to have taken the disposition for hard work out of 
those of native ancestry and given them a hereditary 
love of ease. 

Cuba has only a small population of whites of other 
than Spanish origin, perhaps not more than 10,000 in 
all. There is still another class of inhabitants, the 
Asiatic coolies, imported principally from China, 
whose lot is far from a satisfactory or agreeable one. 
The first of these, 679 in number, were brought to 
Havana in 1847, and they have since been added to 
until they number perhaps more than 30,000; the 



6o 



OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 



actual number is unknown. Coolie labor is not called 
slavery, but is in some respects worse than slavery. 
The coolie is not a native of the soil like the negro, 
with his home and family relations and his assimila- 
tion to his master in language, religion, and customs, 
but remains an alien, bound to work a fixed number 
of years for small pay. No women being brought 
with them, these Chinese laborers have no domestic 
life, and the only interest their employer takes in them 
is to get from them all possible labor. The result is 
frequently a physical wreck, worn out by hard work 
and change of climate. 

The following table shows the numbers and density 
of population in the several provinces at the date of 
the most recent official census, that of 1887: 



Provinces. 


Inhabitants. 


Square 
Kilometres. 


Density. 


Pinar del Rio .... 

Havana 

Matanzas .... 
Santa Clara .... 
Puerto Principe . . . 
Santiago de Cuba . . 


225,891 
451,928 
259,578 

354,122 

67,789 

272,379 


14,967 
8,610 
8,486 
23,083 
32,341 
35,119 


15.09 
5249 
30.59 

15-34 
2.10 

7.76 


Totals 


1,631,687 


122,606 


13.31 



EDUCATION. 

The leading educational institution in Cuba is that 
known, under the Spanish regime, as the Royal Uni- 
versity of Havana. Its official report of the date of 
1890 shows a division into the five departments of 
Philosophy and Letters, Medicine, Pharmacy, Law, 
and Science, there being eighty-six professors, in- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 6i 

eluding assistants, and 1046 students. The corner- 
stone of the buildings now occupied was laid in 1884. 
Each of the six provinces has its separate collegiate 
institute, whose power of conferring degrees is limited 
to that of bachelor or licentiate. These had a total of 
2909 students. 

There is in addition an Havana School of Painting 
and Sculpture, with 454 scholars, and a Professional 
School of the Industrial Arts, with fifty-three. The 
arts of common industry would not, from this state- 
ment, seem to be in much favor among students as 
compared with the fine arts. In 1895, the public or 
municipal schools held 36,747 scholars. A law was 
passed in 1880 making education compulsory, but 
judging from the above figures no attempt has been 
made to put it into efifect. While the proportion of 
school children to the total population in the most 
favored division of the United States is about one to 
four, and even in Spain one to nine, that of Cuba is 
one to twenty-five, showing that there must be a large 
percentage of illiteracy in the island. Of the small 
sum appropriated for education out of the revenue^, 
none has been applied in aid of the common schools, 
which are sustained by municipal aid. The education 
to be obtained in them seems to be of a very element- 
ary kind. The number of private schools approaches 
that of the public ones, these schools being credited 
with 28,249 pupils. They include the various institu- 
tions of private benevolence which add instruction to 
their other duties. 



V- CENTRES OF POPULATION- 
HAVANA, THE CAPITAL CITY. 

San Cristobal de la Habana, to give the full Spanish 
name to this picturesque and important city of the 
American tropics, is admirably situated for commerce, 
lying as it does on one of the finest harbors of the 
world, with noble entrance and deep and spacious 
interior. The vessel approaching Havana passes 
through a channel nearly looo feet wide and more 
than 4000 feet long, free from bar or rock, and 
emerges into an ample bay, dividing up interiorly into 
three distinct arms, and capable of sheltering in its 
broad expanse a thousand ships, and of protecting 
them from any storm less violent than a hurricane, 
while the water is deep enough to permit them to 
moor close to the wharves. A lofty lighthouse rises 
on the left of the entrance, which is defended by a 
series of fortifications, some of them famous for their 
antiquity. On the east side of the entrance are the 
celebrated Morro Castle and the fortress of San Carlos 
de la Cabana, the first of which, also entitled the Cas- 
tle of the Three Kings, dates from 1589. Opposite, 
on the west side, stands the Castillo de la Punta, a 
much smaller fort than the Morro, but of equal an- 
tiquity. Fronting the entrance channel for a distance 
of 800 yards extends the Cabafia fortress, its barracks 
ample enough to give accommodation to 4000 men. 
Farther inland on the bay side is Casa Blanca, another 
62 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 63 

old fort, east of which, on a hill one hundred feet high, 
is a redoubt named San Diego. On the most westerly 
of the hills curving around the city stands the Castillo 
del Principe, a conspicuous fortification. The Castle 
of Atares, on one of the inland bays, dates from about 

1763- 

The Morro is a substantial stone fortress of the old 
style, with thick and solid walls and a deep dry moat, 
and is quite capable of holding its own against old 
style guns. How well it would withstand the batter- 
ing of modern rifled cannon is another question. No 
trial of it was made in the late war. The Cabafia for- 
tress is the largest on the island, and is claimed to be 
one of the best in the world. It is built on a precipi- 
tous bank that rises directly from the water-side, en- 
abling it to overlook the town and command most of 
the bay. Built, like the Morro, of solid stone, it has 
the appearance of immense strength, while its great 
length gives it an enormous capacity for mounting 
guns. More ancient still than the Morro and the 
Punta is the Castillo de la Fuerza, built in 1538 by 
Fernando de Soto, while governor of the island, to 
protect the city from its piratical enemies. It is now 
within the city streets, and presents an interesting ex- 
ample of a mediaeval fortress, retaining much of its 
original form of a star-shaped, bastioned fort. 

The city of Havana lies on the west side of the bay, 
fronting its waters and those of the entrance channel, 
while it has another front facing the ocean, along 
whose waters it extends for some distance. It is low- 
lying, but presents an attractive and picturesque ap- 
pearance to the approaching stranger, with its bright- 
colored walls, its red-tiled roofs, and the green of its 



64 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

trees, under the glare of the tropical sun. No other 
city in the Western world presents so oriental an 
aspect. The throng of shipping in the spacious bay 
adds to the beauty of the scene, the ships from far-off 
ports being added to by numbers of local trading ves- 
sels and hundreds of passenger boats, with parti- 
colored sails, in constant motion about the bay. These 
look strange to unaccustomed eyes, with their awn- 
ings supported by a basket-like frame-work, and add 
their share to the picturesqueness of the scene. 

The bay of Havana has an extreme length of three 
and a half miles and a maximum width of one and a 
half miles, while the available extent is something 
over one mile in length and less than one mile in 
width. It branches into three principal coves, while 
there are many small indentations. Its greatest depth 
is forty feet, but vessels of over twenty feet draught 
are restricted to a comparatively Hmited space. On 
the east side of the bay is the commercial suburb of 
Regla, notable for its Depositos Mercantil, immense 
warehouses of solid stone for the storage of sugar. 
These consist of a long series of one-storied build- 
ings of great height, the heavy iron beams and cor- 
rugated iron of the roof being supported by numer- 
ous pillars of iron. They stand on the bay shore, 
their doors opening on substantial wharves, and 
have few rivals for capacity and systematic manage- 
ment. Another of the attractions of Regla, at least to 
the Spaniard, is its famous bull-ring, where numbers 
of bulls and horses are annually sacrificed on the altar 
of Spanish taste. At some distance from Regla, on 
the same side of the bay, stands the old town of 
Guanabacoa, of some 30,000 population, which dates 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 65 

back to 1554, and was originally an Indian village. 
Its principal modern attraction is the Santa Rita min- 
eral baths, claimed to have performed remarkable 
cures. The waters, which are cool and pleasant to the 
taste, pour out of a rocky basin, and are so fully im- 
pregnated with bitumen, iron, potash, and magnesia 
that the mineral substances form a thick layer upon 
the surface. 

Havana, a city peopled by more than 200,000 souls 
(perhaps 300,000, if all the suburbs be included), popu- 
larly consists of two widely different sections, the city 
within and the city without the walls; though little 
trace of walls is to-day to be seen. The walls which 
enclosed the ancient city were completed in 1702, but 
were almost entirely demolished in 1863, the streets 
having long before spread far beyond them. The old 
city lies close to the harbor, and is made up of streets 
so narrow as to render wheeled traffic within it the 
reverse of convenient. These contracted streets are 
normally dirty and insalubrious; the drainage being 
anything but scientific, and the badly-kept pavements 
so impregnated with filth as to be sickening to the 
senses of a foreigner. The Cuban nasal organ is na- 
tive to the situation and not easily disturbed. 

The lot of the foot-passenger in the old town is not 
an agreeable one. The narrow streets are abundantly 
occupied by vehicles, while the sidewalks, where any 
exist, are so narrow that it is no easy matter for two 
persons to pass. One must brush the wall and the 
other perhaps be forced off the narrow flag-stone into 
the street. But he can step into its mud.dy midway 
only at imminent risk of being run into by some hasty 
carriage or other vehicle. Many of the streets are so 

5 



66 ^ OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

narrow that it is impossible for two vehicles to pass 
each other, so that carriages and carts can only move 
in one direction, directing signs being placed at the 
street corners. 

One advantage of these narrow streets is that they 
aid in keeping out the hot beams of the tropical sun. 
This is helped by bright-colored awnings, which cross 
from roof to roof at intervals and throw downward a 
grateful shade. Below, in the business thoroughfares, 
extend rows of stores, with handsome windows and 
their shelves almost upon the streets, most of their 
goods being displayed in the broad windows. For 
signs they do not trust to a mere name and number, 
but present some striking title and design, such as 
" The Green Cross," " The Nymphs," " The Looking- 
Glass," '' The Golden Lion," " Diana," " Virtue," and 
other curious names. 

In the new town modern ideas about city building 
have largely prevailed, there being many wide and 
handsome avenues, often fringed with rows of stately 
palms, and with broad macadamized drives in the 
centre. These are bordered with leafy gardens and 
solidly built stone houses, having verandas and flat 
roofs. Iron bars guard the windows in place of glazed 
sashes, while the walls are gay with varied bright 
colors and with decorations in white marble, which is 
lavishly used in Havana both for shops and dwellings. 

The houses are usually one story in height, rarely 
two, and have broad and massive doors, thickly 
studded with knobs and decorations, and thick, 
strong walls, that look as if built for defence against 
enemies. The prison-like aspect given by the win- 
dow-bars is relieved by the bright colors in which they 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 67 

are painted. The walls, built of a peculiar porous 
shell-conglomerate glaringly white in color, are nearly 
always covered with stucco, whose bright colors of 
yellow, green, and blue harmonize well with the 
glowing atmosphere. The dwellings, of combined 
Gothic and Saracenic architecture, are so constructed 
as to leave an open square in the centre, — the house 
being divided into living-room, store-room, chambers, 
and stable, while the street entrance is usually blocked 
up in part by the family vehicle. If there is a second 
story, it is reached by a broad flight of stairs, and con- 
tains the sleeping-chambers, opening upon a corridor 
facing the court. 

Havana is to-day, as in the past, a city of smells and 
noises. Little effort is made at cleaning the streets or 
draining the houses, and such drainage as does take 
place pours its impurities into the harbor, which is 
yearly filling up with foul accretions. Yet for this con- 
version of the harbor into a filth-pool there seems no 
excuse of necessity, since the city, lying between the 
harbor and the ocean, is admirably situated for carry- 
ing its drainage into the open sea. The streets, stone 
paved and abundantly occupied by vehicles, driven 
often with reckless speed, are a scene of constant rat- 
tle, to which the street railway cars add their share. 
The avenues are abundantly provided with restau- 
rants, cafes, casinos, and club-houses, which are largely 
frequented, home life being a feature of the north 
which has little existence among the well-to-do peo- 
ple of this city of the south. 

Havana is nowhere surpassed for the number and 
the beauty of its public parks and promenades. Most 
prominent among these are the Plaza de Armas, 



68 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

facing the governor's palace; the Alameda de Paula, 
a bay-side embankment; the Parque Central; and the 
Paseo de Tacon, whose magnificent drive is shaded by 
double rows of trees. In addition may be named the 
Paseo Isabel or the Prado, a long and handsome 
boulevard; the Campo de Marte, or drill park; the 
highly attractive Botanical Gardens; and the gardens 
of Los Molinos, long the suburban residence of the 
captain-generals. The avenues named, with others 
that might be mentioned, charm the visitor with their 
trees, flowers, fountains, and statuary, and with their 
liveliness, they being almost constantly crowded with 
handsome open carriages and well-dressed prome- 
naders. Only for " its smells and its noises," as one 
writer says, Havana would be one of the most pleasing 
of cities. 

Its fashionable driveway, the Paseo de Tacon, is two 
or three miles long, lined with beautiful villas and rich 
gardens filled with tropical plants. It has two car- 
riage-ways and two foot-ways, with rows of stately 
trees between. No other city in America has its equal 
as an avenue. Opening from it, near its outer ex- 
tremity, are the Botanical Gardens, adjoining which 
are the equally beautiful Los Molinos gardens, made 
free to the public by their late owners, the captain- 
generals. Those charming places of resort are open 
day and night, an3 an evening stroll through their 
beautiful walks, surrounded by the most exquisite of 
tropical flowers and plants, is nowhere to be sur- 
passed. The Botanical Gardens contain specimens of 
almost every plant of the tropics, growing freely in 
the open air, while in the centre a large stone basin is 
filled with water lilies, surrounding a rustic fountain 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 69 

made of shells. From these gardens one can stroll 
into those of Los Molinos, with their great variety of 
tropical trees and flowers and their magnificent 
avenue of palms, one of the finest on the island. The 
place seems a wilderness of blossoms, exotic and na- 
tive, and possesses an interesting aviary, leaping foun- 
tains, and other features of attraction. 

One of the most striking objects in a general view 
of the city of Havana is what has long been known as 
the Royal Prison, a large yellow building occupying 
a whole city block. This, built in 1771, forms a hollow 
square, the interior area being used as a place of exer- 
cise for the prisoners. It has cells for five hundred 
captives and barracks for a regiment, the cells being 
in the rear and the front occupied by offices and quar- 
ters. This massive edifice, in the vicinity of the 
Punta fortress, fronts on one of the choice avenues of 
the city, the Prado, a wide boulevard nearly two miles 
long, whose centre is ornamented with rows of trees 
and possesses stone seats and a promenade, while a 
carriage-way extends on either side. 

The Prado, starting from the seaside near the Punta 
fortress and passing nearly in the line of the old city 
wall, has facing it or in its vicinity the finest buildings 
and the most attractive portions of the city proper. 
The fashionable Parque Central, with its adornment 
of trees, shrubbery, and flowers, and surrounded by 
handsome, colonnaded buildings, forms an enlarge- 
ment of this avenue, and is one of the liveliest and 
most attractive features of the city. Fronting on it 
are the Hotel Inglaterra, the best and largest in Cuba ; 
the famous Tacon Theatre, the Alibasu Theatre, the 
Spanish Casino, and other striking buildings, while 



70 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

around it extend open-air cafes, brilliantly lighted by 
night, and gay as those of the Parisian boulevards. 
On certain evenings of the week a military band plays 
here, while crowds of well-dressed people promenade 
or seat themselves in the neighboring cafes and bal- 
conies. 

The palace recently occupied by the captain-general 
faces the Plaza de Armas, and is a large yellow build- 
ing, two stories in height, the upper floor being sup- 
ported on the front by open stone colonnades, which 
give an excellent architectural efifect. The central 
colonnade forms an archway leading into the hand- 
somely-adorned court-yard within. 

Of the churches of Havana, some of them imposing 
in size, others famous for antiquity, the one most 
likely to attract the attention of the stranger is the 
Cathedral. This edifice, built in 1724 for a Jesuit col- 
lege and converted into a cathedral in 1789, is con- 
structed of the yellowish-white calcareous sandstone 
of the island, but now presents a battered and black- 
ened aspect. The facade, with its pillars, niches, and 
mouldings, and its two high flanking towers, is pecu- 
liar and striking in appearance rather than beautiful. 
Numerous bells, some of them ancient, hang in the 
towers, and daily call the worshippers to matins and 
vespers. 

Interiorly the church is attractive, with its richly 
frescoed walls, its floor of variegated marble, and its 
lofty dome supported by pillars of marble, while the 
stalls of the priests are beautifully carved in polished 
mahogany, the designs being light and graceful. Sev- 
eral beautiful altars stand at intervals around the walls, 
having pillars, cornices, and mouldings of solid ma- 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 71 

hogany, the prominent parts richly gilt. The grand 
altar, with its porphyry pillars, its images, candle- 
sticks, and other adornments, is a handsome structure, 
as is also the choir in its rear. 

But the great object of interest has long been the 
tomb of Columbus, the remains of the great discoverer 
having, in 1796, been brought to Havana from the city 
of San Domingo, when the island of Hayti was ceded 
to France. The urn containing these sacred relics 
was deposited with great ceremony in a niche in the 
wall, marked by a marble tablet on which was placed 
a bust of Columbus, in the costume of his age, but 
sadly lacking artistic merit. Beneath was an inscrip- 
tion in Castilian, similarly lacking poetic taste. Ren- 
dered into English it has the following grandiloquent 
significance: 

'* Oh, rest thou, image of the great Colon, 
Thousand centuries remain, guarded in the urn, 
And in the memory of our nation." 

The thousand centuries, however, have proved little 
more than one century, for in 1898, after the close of 
the war with the United States, the remains of the 
great Colon were once more removed, this time back 
again to Spain, which they had left to cross the ocean 
in 1536. Cuba, as San Domingo before it, had ceased 
to be Spanish soil, and the ashes of the great dis- 
coverer were restored to that land which had per- 
mitted him to die in penury and neglect. 

Passing from church to theatre, the most important 
edifice of this kind is the Tacon Theatre, erected in 
1838, and with seats for an audience of about 3000 
persons. It is situated on the corner of the street San 



72 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Rafael and the Prado jr Paseo Isabel, opposite El 
Louvre, a fashionable cafe, and while not very im- 
posing on the exterior is handsome within. It has 
five tiers of boxes, their fronts decorated with gilt 
lattice work of light and graceful design. The audi- 
torium is of horseshoe shape, the parquette, with seats 
for 600 persons, being reserved for gentlemen. The 
ornaments are in excellent taste, the house well 
lighted, and the whole effect brilliant when the house 
is crowded with gayly dressed ladies and gentlemen 
in evening dress. 

Other places of amusement include the Payret 
Theatre, seating 2500, the Alibasu Theatre, the Circo, 
and the Casino, the last combining amusement with 
instruction. This edifice, w^hich is one of the institu- 
tions of the capital, has facilities for dramatic enter- 
tainments, — mainly amateur, for charitable purposes, 
— and has a handsomely decorated ball-room, where 
masked balls are occasionally given, and, during the 
carnival season, nightly masquerade balls are held un- 
surpassed for gayety and picturesqueness of costume 
and effect. The Casino also supports a free school 
for the teaching of French and English and drawing, 
ing. 

Of other buildings of interest may be named the 
churches of San Juan de Dios, buih in 1573, San Agos- 
tino, in 1608, Santa Catalina, in 1658, and San Felipe, 
which has the distinction of possessing a large library. 
The Belen Church, occupying nearly a whole city 
block, is perhaps the most attractive of them all. 
There are many monasteries and nunneries and a 
considerable number of charitable institutions. These 
include several hospitals, of which the most important 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 73 

is the Real Casa de Beneficencia, dating back to 1790, 
and containing an orphan asylum, a lunatic asylum, 
a poor-house, and an infirmary. To these may be 
added the custom-house, the exchange, the univer- 
sity, and other public edifices and educational institu- 
tions. 

In addition to the library of the Church of San 
Felipe is that of the Royal Economical Society of 
Havana, which possesses a large number of books, 
many of them rare, particularly those relating to Cuba. 
The rooms are open from twelve to three each day, 
though the books, principally in Spanish, do not pre- 
sent indications of being much used. 

The Alameda de Paula skirts the bay shore on the 
city side, and is a favorite evening resort for prome- 
naders, the ocean breeze giving it a refreshing cool- 
ness. It is faced by many handsome buildings, while 
the water-side is bordered with a continuous sea-wall. 

The city is well provided with statues and fountains, 
one of the most attractive of tlie latter being the beau- 
tiful Fountain of India, on the Prado, opposite the 
Campo de Marte. This work of art, carved out of 
Carrara marble, is surrounded with royal palms, and 
adds much to the beauty of the avenue. The city 
possesses numerous squares, usually ornamented with 
palm trees, with a few orange, lime, and banana trees, 
and the shady Indian laurel. 

From the Campo de Marte extends the Calzada de 
la Reina (Queen's Street), which farther on becomes 
the Paseo de Tacon, already mentioned, the two being, 
of an afternoon, the liveliest part of the city, as they 
form the favorite pleasure drive and promenade. The 
Calzada de la Infanta leads into a long street, called 



74 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

El Cerro, which extends to the village of that name, 
three miles out, and is by many considered the hand- 
somest street of the city. It is lined with attractive 
modern residences, and large old villas in the midst of 
beautiful gardens, each house in its way like a fort, 
with its single story, its unglazed and strongly barred 
windows, and its vast and massive doorways, studded 
with brass knobs. The principal entrance opens into 
a large, cool hall, paved with tiles of marble, while 
broad archways lead to the rooms adjoining. Within 
the houses doors are lacking, curtains replacing them 
in the interior arrangement. The ceilings are very 
high, and the free circulation of air from the court- 
yard render these halls the most agreeable part of the 
house for dining purposes. The patio or court-yard 
is laid out with walks, flowers, fountains, and fra- 
grant bushes, while birds of song or of brilliant plu- 
mage hang there in ornamental cages. All the rooms 
open into it, and an upper gallery runs round it when 
the house has a second story. 

On the right of the Cerro lies a charming place 
formerly known as the Bishop's Garden, one of whose 
chief attractions is a superb avenue of mango trees. 
Here are also some noble examples of the cactus, 
which often attains a vast size in Cuban soil. There 
is an alley of palms, over two hundred years in age, 
and grand in dimensions, and many evidences of 
former artistic adornment, now in a state of neglect 
and decay. A small stream of mountain origin flows 
through the grounds, and affords opportunities for 
irrigation, cascades, fountains, pools, and swimming 
basins. 

Havana is amply provided with facilities for sea- 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 75 

bathing, in which the sharks that haunt the outer 
waters are set at defiance. The ocean shore is com- 
posed of coral rock, within which, at great expense, 
basins have been hollowed out, the opening to the 
sea being too narrow to permit the entrance of any 
of its dangerous habitants. The basins are from 
twelve to eighteen feet square and eight feet deep, 
the water within them averaging about five feet deep. 
The constant in- and out-flow of the sea keeps the 
water perfectly pure and crystal clear, except in case 
of a storm, when the sea breaks over the top in a tur- 
moil of boiling foam, giving the benefit of surf bathing. 

Of the hotels of Havana may be named the Hotel 
Telegrafo, situated opposite the Campo de Marte; the 
San Carlos, a family hotel near the wharves ; the Hotel 
Pasaje, on the Prado; the Hotel Europa, in the Plaza 
de San Francisco; and the Hotels Central and Ingla- 
terra, in the noisy quarter opposite the Parque Cen- 
tral. All these houses have restaurants, and are run 
both on the American and the European plan. Res- 
taurants and cafes, indeed, exist abundantly through- 
out Havana, whose people live largely out of doors 
and get their meals abroad. 

Of the markets, the most convenient is the Mercado 
de Cristina, in the Plaza Vieja, occupying a hollow 
square, whose sides are composed of ranges of stores 
of all kinds, faced by an arcade. Here may be seen 
immense heaps of vegetables and smaller piles of all 
the luscious fruits of Cuba, presided over by the 
swarthy country people or by dusky negroes in highly 
varied costume. Berries are lacking. There seem to 
be none raised on the island, the great heat, as is said, 
burning them up. Nor is there to be seen the va- 



76 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

riety of delicious summer vegetables of the north, — 
onions, cabbages, and sweet potatoes being the prin- 
cipal productions of this kind. The plantain, in com- 
mon with rice and tasajo (jerked beef, or fish), con- 
stitutes the principal food of the poor. 

The fish market is on the other side of the town, in 
a large stone building near the bay. The varieties of 
edible fish are very numerous, more than one hundred, 
it is said, the best being the pargo and the raba-rubia. 
These are scarce except during the prevalence of the 
winter north winds, when they appear in numbers and 
are sold at a low price. Among other fish exposed for 
sale is the shark, offered whole or in sections; the 
spoiler of the seas being thus made food for man. 

Havana is fortunate in its water-supply, a sufficient 
store of excellent drinking water being brought into 
the city by means of a fine aqueduct. The water comes 
from the pure and extensive springs of Vento, about 
nine miles distant, and is conducted through the city 
to the fountains with which Havana abounds. There 
is also an old aqueduct, known as the Zanja, built as 
early as 1597, and drawing its supply from the river 
Almandares, an impure source. The city has few wells 
and cisterns, and nearly all the water uspd is pure. 
Ice, made by ice-machines, is supplied in sufficient 
quantity to be sold at a low price, there being three 
ice factories in the city. In the interior of the island, 
where this cooling article is not to be had, porous 
jars, placed where the breeze favors evaporation from 
their surface, are employed, and serve admirably to 
cool the water to an agreeable temperature for 
drinking. 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 77 

KATANZAS. 

Fifty-four miles east of Havana, at the head of a 
magnificent bay, Hes Matanzas, a city of considerable 
commercial importance, and the capital of the prov- 
ince of the same name. The bay, while large, lacks 
depth, and is not suitable for vessels of much draught. 
It receives the waters of the rivers San Juan and 
Yumurri, between and beyond which the city extends. 
It was settled in 1693 by a colony from the Canary 
Islands, and has to-day a population estimated at 
50,000. 

Picturesque and verdant hills surround the bay in 
the form of an amphitheatre, to whose ascending slopes 
the city extends, while the surrounding country is 
one of the most fertile and productive sections of 
Cuba. Built later, and under better supervision, than 
Havana, this city has escaped the evil of narrow ave^ 
nues, its streets being wide; while its superior drainage 
and cleanliness give it a better record for healthful- 
ness than that enjoyed by the capital. The climate is 
claimed to be specially favorable to those afflicted with 
throat and lung diseases, also to sufferers from rheu- 
matism and neuralgia, and many invalids of this char- 
acter seek it for relief. 

The most prominent building visible on approach- 
ing Matanzas from the water-side is the custom-house, 
a large one-storied stone building, built a century ago. 
On the high lands in the rear are visible the country- 
seats of the well-to-do inhabitants, who from this out- 
look enjoy a delightfully picturesque view of the city 
and its wide-spreading and hill-clasped bay. Tower- 
ing above the city is the Monte de Pan, or Bread 



78 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Mountain, a lofty background whose far-off summit 
serves as a welcome landmark to southward-bound 
vessels. 

The city itself has no special features calling for 
mention, though it is rather attractive in general ap- 
pearance. Its chief public square, the Plaza de 
Armas, is quite pretty with its walks, shrubbery, and 
flowers, and is surrounded by handsome stores and 
dwellings, club-houses, and the official residence and 
offices. The principal church is a large, antique build- 
ing, with nothing particular to recommend it; and 
there is a new and spacious theatre and the inevitable 
bull-ring and cock-pits. The city is well provided 
with railways, running to Havana, Cienfuegos, Sagua, 
and Santa Clara. These Cuban roads, American in 
their equipment and often in their engineers, are fairly 
well conducted and make reasonably good time. 

Beyond the San Juan lies the Pueblo Nuevo (new 
city), flanked by some handsome country-seats; and 
beyond the Yumurri is a section of the city known 
as Versalles. Here, on the edge of the bay, is the 
beautiful Paseo of Versalles, the favorite evening 
drive, and on the hills adjoining stand the military 
hospital and the barracks of Santa Isabel. 

Matanzas possesses two famous points of attraction, 
the valley of the Yumurri and the cave of Bellemar. 
There is nowhere a lovelier view than the former, 
which is made up of a broad, circular level area, some 
five or six miles in diameter, enclosed on all sides by 
steep slopes rising to the height of five or six hundred 
feet. Through the centre of this winds the beautiful 
Yumurri, which reaches the bay through an exquisite 
canon about four miles long. Seen from the cumhrey 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 79 

or mountain height near Matanzas, this peaceful and 
verdant valley, with its palm groups and plantations, 
its groves and dwellings, and with the silvery stream 
and its tributaries winding through it like glowing 
threads, presents one of the most charming visions of 
all the tropic world. 

Matanzas has in its vicinity other beautiful views, 
among the most striking of which is the valley of the 
Magdalen, as seen from the Hill of Paradise. Here 
for some fifteen miles between hazy mountains ex- 
tends a verdant country, with green elevations, grace- 
ful groves, and the buildings of many sugar estates, 
while in the far distance lie the city and bay of Ma- 
tanzas. 

The cave of Bellemar, opened accidentally, not 
many years ago, by some quarrymen, who fancied 
they had broken through the earth's crust, reaches a 
depth of several hundred feet beneath the surface, and 
has many beautiful stalactitic effects. Its length, so 
far opened, is about three miles. Of its views may be 
mentioned the Gothic Temple, smaller but much more 
beautiful than the similar chamber in the Mammoth 
Cave, and the Fountain of Snow, a splendid effect of 
pure white stalactites whose charm it would be hard 
to surpass. It has, besides its Cloak of the Virgin, its 
Altars, its Guardian Spirits, its Mantle of Columbus, 
and such like indispensable requisites of Cuban caves, 
many of them, unfortunately, the worse for the smoke 
from the torches of the guides. 

Of the hotel accommodations of Matanzas, the 
Hotel Louvre bears the best record for cleanliness and 
general attractiveness, combined with high prices for 
inferior fare, which one must expect everywhere in 



8o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Cuba. The rooms are small and the partitions be- 
tween them do not reach to the ceiling, so that privacy 
is sadly lacking, — but this also is a desideratum not 
highly considered in Cuba. 

If one desires to visit a Cuban watering-place, the 
Saratoga of the island, a two-hours' railroad trip to- 
wards the interior will take him to the village of Ma- 
druga, celebrated for its mineral springs, which are 
accredited with wonderful curative properties. The 
village lies in a beautiful and healthful rolling country, 
and is a fashionable place of resort in the late spring 
and summer. The waters of the baths are impreg- 
nated with sulphur, and with some iron, magnesia, 
and potassa, and are claimed to be sovereign in their 
effect on rheumatism, scrofula, paralysis, dyspepsia, 
and certain other ills. 

CARDENAS. 

Thirty miles east of Matanzas is Cardenas, built 
almost directly upon the sea, though a long neck of 
land to the northwest forms a bay-like enclosure and 
affords a fair degree of protection to the shipping at 
the wharves. It is the youngest town of any note in 
Cuba, dating from 1828, and has a population esti- 
mated at about 21,000, its prosperity being due to the 
great fertility of the back country, for whose products 
it forms the shipping point. It is called the American 
city, a large number of Americans being engaged in 
business here, while the English language is in very 
common use. 

The city is flanked on both sides by mangrove 
swamps; it standing a few feet above their level and 
running back to higher ground. It is substantially 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 8i 

built, and has its fair share of handsome buildings, 
while in its centre is a large and tasteful plaza, boast- 
ing a fine bronze statue of Columbus. The streets 
are about forty feet wide, but are unpaved and with- 
out sewerage. Yet, despite this and its swampy situa- 
tion, Cardenas is a healthy city, and generally enjoys 
the advantage of cool ocean breezes. 

It is the centre of a large sugar-producing district, 
and is also the shipping point for much of the sugar 
of Havana province. Its bay, which is twelve miles 
long by eighteen wide, is so shallow near the shore 
that large vessels have to anchor one or two miles 
outward. Craft of ten or twelve feet draught can 
reach the wharves, which are from 300 to 1000 feet 
in length. The city has an excellent water-supply, 
though many of the people still use the unwholesome 
cistern water. 

OTHER NORTHERN PORTS. 

Sagua la Grande, in the north of Santa Clara prov- 
ince, and 160 miles from Havana, is a town of 
14,000 inhabitants, situated on the navigable river of 
the same name, about ten miles inland from its sea- 
port. La Isabella. It has railway connection with 
Santa Clara and Cienfuegos, and occasional visits 
from steamboats, but has nothing to recommend it 
to strangers. Some thirty-five miles southeastward 
lies San Juan de los Remedios, an old town, founded 
in 1545 on a coast islet and afterwards removed inland 
out of reach of the buccaneers. Its port is Caibarien, 
about five miles distant, which has a good harbor. Its 
population is nearly 7500. It is surrounded by a very 
fertile district and possesses a good trade in sugar. 

6 



82 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The city of Puerto Principe has for its port the har- 
bor of Nuevitas, a town of about 7000 population, 
situated on a fine bay, to which Columbus gave the 
name of Puerto Principe, now applied to the prov- 
ince. The entrance to this bay is through a narrow 
channel, four or five miles long, which opens into 
a double bay, one section being called Nuevitas and 
the other Mayanabo, and each receiving the waters 
of two rivers. 

The province of Santiago de Cuba possesses several 
fine harbors on its north coast, its most important 
port on this coast being Gibara, the outlet of the in- 
land city of Holguin. Here is a capacious bay, though 
not deep enough to let vessels come up to the wharves, 
lighters needing to be employed. Plantains, grown 
abundantly in the interior, are shipped from here in 
large quantities to Havana. The population is nearly 
5000. 

Almost due north from the city of Santiago opens 
the spacious bay of Nipe, one of the most commodious 
on the island, and the scene of one of the latest naval 
engagements during the recent war. Its commercial 
advantages have not yet been utilized. North of it lies 
the harbor of Banes, an important fruit-shipping point, 
particularly for bananas, more than 1,000,000 bunches 
being shipped in some recent years. Pine-apples are 
also largely grown, 32,000 being exported in 1894. 

Still proceeding eastward, we reach the ancient 
town of Baracoa, the oldest on the island, situated not 
far from Cape Maisi, its most easterly point. This 
town, seated on a small, land-locked bay, with narrow 
entrance, was founded in 15 12 by Diego Velasquez, 
who made it the capital of the island and fixed his 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 83 

residence there. The first cathedral of Cuba, built 
there in 15 18, was subsequently removed to Santiago. 
Baracoa has a population of about 5000, and is an 
active shipping point, sending out large cargoes of 
pineapples, bananas, and cocoa-nuts, the produce of 
the surrounding country, and also having a good trade 
in cofTee. Back of the town rises an abrupt mountain 
range, while the adjacent country is highly pictu- 
resque, being noted for its caverns, cascades, and cu- 
rious natural formations. The caves are celebrated 
for the beauty of their stalactites, and also for the fossil 
remains found in them. In addition to the bones of 
the lower animals, they contain Indian remains. The 
town is unhealthy, malarial fevers being very preva- 
lent; but the interior country is very healthful. 

West of Havana, on the coast of Pinar del Rio 
province, are several good harbors, including those 
of Mariel, at the northern end of Weyler's famous 
trocha, Cabaiias, and Bahia Honda, the last named 
possessing one of the finest harbors of Cuba. The 
surrounding country is very rich in its sugar-cane 
production. 

SANTIAGO DE CUBA. 

First in importance among the southern ports of 
the island is the city of Santiago de Cuba, capital of 
the province of the same name, and at one time capital 
of the whole island. This city, whose name is com- 
monly abbreviated by the inhabitants to " Cuba" or 
** Santiago," was founded in 1514 by Diego Velasquez, 
and is now credited with a population of abouf 60,000. 
It is situated on a fine bay, famous as the place of 
refuge of Cervera's Spanish squadron, while the city 
has similarly gained celebrity as the centre of military 



84 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and naval operations in Cuba during the war of 1898, 
and as the first port of the island rescued from Spanish 
rule. 

Santiago is backed by a mountain country, and is 
built on an ascending hill-side, reaching at its highest 
point a level of 160 feet above the sea, so that from 
any point are presented superb views of the expanding 
bay and of the neighboring mountains. The city is 
regularly laid out, the streets crossing at right angles; 
though the steepness of those which run back from 
the harbor, gullied as they are by the frequent rains, 
interferes seriously with the comfort of the pedestrian. 
The sidewalks are but ten to fifteen inches in width, 
and the avenues, once paved with cobble-stones, have 
long been in an almost impassable condition, while the 
stream of foul water which flowed down them served 
the purpose of drainage, but not of cleanliness and 
immunity from unpleasant odors. It is not to be won- 
dered at that this city has been the central seat of yel- 
low fever, that fatal child of filth and neglect. 

In the centre of the city is the Plaza de la Reina 
(Square of the Queen), a breathing-spot with much 
beauty of vegetation. On its eastern side stands the 
cathedral, a handsome stone structure, whose elevated 
position makes it a very prominent object from the 
bay. It is the largest church in Cuba, as befits its 
dignity as the seat of an archbishop's see, but has not 
been spared by earthquakes, which have injured it so 
that it needed to be practically rebuilt in the early- 
part of the nineteenth century. Externally it resem- 
bles somewhat the cathedral of Havana. Internally, 
the main aisle, leading to the grand altar and choir, 
is imposing from the height of its arches and massive- 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 85 

ness of its pillars, and there are some richly decorated 
chapels; but the effect, on the whole, is not very 
striking. The elaborate ceremonials which occasion- 
ally take place here attract people from all sections of 
the island. 

Santiago possesses several spacious two-story club- 
houses of some pretentiousness, and a multitude of 
gaudy drinking-saloons, which in the evening, with 
their open fronts and their abundant display of look- 
ing-glasses, bottles of colored liquor, and general 
glitter, have a dazzling effect. One would think that 
the Cubans spent their time in drinking, yet it is rare 
to see one of them the worse for liquor. In fact, they 
indulge sparingly in intoxicants, preferring some of 
their numerous '' soft drinks." The houses in the 
older portion of the city are vari-colored, one-storied 
stone buildings, of the Moorish style of architecture. 
In the suburbs are many cheap wooden structures. 

The sidewalks are so narrow that one involun- 
tarily takes to the street, a not very agreeable alterna- 
tive in the past, when these narrow avenues were well 
carpeted with dirt and filth, and served as open sewers 
for the conveyance of malodorous waters. Santiago, 
indeed, has long been famous for lack of cleanliness, 
though under the vigorous control of General Wood, 
the American military governor, it has had a thor- 
ough cleansing for the first time in its history, a 
mountain mass of dirt being carted away. The streets 
are now kept thoroughly clean, all garbage is burned 
daily, and cleanliness of dwellings and shops is 
rigidly enforced, whitewash, fresh paint, and disin- 
fectants being freely used. Whether this state of 
affairs will be maintained by the Cubans if left to them- 



86 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

selves it is impossible to say, but they have certainly 
been treated to a most useful object lesson. 

The city is at once very hot and extremely un- 
healthy. The surrounding mountain country shuts 
it closely in and keeps off the refreshing sea breezes, 
while the unhealthfulness is due to the disease-breed- 
ing filth which has accumulated for centuries in the 
bottom of the bay, this being so land-locked that little 
of the sewage is carried out to sea. The rapid up- 
ward slope of the city renders drainage easy, but how 
to carry the sewage beyond the bay is likely to be a 
serious and costly matter. 

The bay itself is a particularly fine one, about five 
miles long and three miles in greatest width. The 
water shoals to ten or fifteen feet at the wharves, so 
that lighterage is necessary for large vessels. The 
largest steamers, however, can lie beside the magnifi- 
cent iron pier of the Juragua Mining Company. The 
island of Cayo Smith, near the harbor entrance, serves 
as a watering-place for the best families of the city, 
and contains many beautiful villas. 

There are many attractive drives in the vicinity of 
this city, one of the most fashionable being that of 
the Paseo de Concha. An agreeable and not very 
long drive, over ground that has recently become 
famous, is that to Morro Castle, at the entrance to 
the harbor. Morro is a familiar word in Cuba and 
Porto Rico, meaning no more than a fortification on 
the summit of a rounded or semicircular hill. The 
Morro of Santiago is a full century older than the 
more famous one of Havana, and is a highly pictu- 
resque structure, being a yellow, Moorish-looking 
stronghold, with crumbling, honeycombed battle- 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 87 

ments, odd little flanking turrets, and grated windows. 
Beneath it, at the water's edge, the sea has worn a 
deep cave in the cliffs, whose broad entrance lies be- 
neath a perfect natural arch. 

The Morro passed through a baptism of fire from 
Admiral Sampson's fleet during the siege of Santiago, 
but with far less injurious effect than was anticipated. 
Antique and adapted to a former age as it is, it bore 
remarkably well the fire of the great 12- and 13-inch 
rifled guns, and emerged not seriously the worse for 
its severe bombardments. 

Other localities which have recently become famous 
about Santiago are the hill of San Juan and the vil- 
lage of El Caney, both made memorable by the in- 
trepid valor of American troops. In the mountain 
country back of the city are the rich copper and iron 
mines, already spoken of, whose yield, freed from the 
annoyances and crippling exactions of Spanish con- 
trol, can scarcely fail to become great and valuable. 

Eastward from Santiago lies the magnificent bay of 
Guantanamo, within whose confines the American 
marines gained their first footing on Cuban soil, and 
whose waters served as a coaling harbor for the 
blockading fleet. 

The city itself, while small, is charmingly situated, 
the surrounding mountain country yielding the 
choicest coffee of Cuba, while sugar is grown in the 
valleys, and the coast country is noted for its beautiful 
groves of lemon and lime trees. 

Westward, in the deep gulf made by the promontory 
of Cape Cruz, is the port of Manzanillo, a town of 
more than 9000 population, with a large trade in sugar, 
agricultural and forest products, and so situated as to 



88 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

make it one of the most unhealthful towns on the 
island. Farther west, and due south from Puerto 
Principe, is the port of Santa Cruz del Sur, a town of 
about looo population, dealing in fine timber, cattle, 
wax, honey, and other products. 

TRINIDAD. 

The province of Santa Clara possesses two southern 
ports of importance, Trinidad and Cienfuegos. The 
former, lying due south of the provincial capital, is 
situated some miles inland from the bay, with a moun- 
tain background and in one of the healthiest districts 
of the island. The village of Casilda, on the side of 
the shallow bay, serves as its port, the city being built 
inland as a partial protection from the buccaneers of 
past centuries. 

Trinidad, with a population of about 18,000, is one 
of the oldest towns on the island, dating back to 15 14. 
It was formerly the centre of the coffee trade of Cuba, 
but has declined with the falling off of the coffee cul- 
ture, while the more modern Cienfuegos has taken 
much of its trade. The city lies some six miles back 
from the coast, on the side of Vijia (watch-tower) 
Mountain, its elevation above sea-level being from 
200 to nearly 400 feet. 

The streets of Trinidad, as a result of its antiquity, 
are nearly all narrow and winding, those on the edge 
of the town being unpaved. Some of them present 
a peculiar appearance, with their rough tiled houses 
and the odd titles given the stores. In the better streets 
the dwellings are usually large and comfortable, a 
number of them being quite handsome. Of the pleas- 
ure grounds of the city much the most attractive is 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 89 

the Plaza de Carillo, situated centrally and beautifully 
laid out, its walks being shaded with vines and shrub- 
bery and made charming by a profusion of flowers, 
while a vine-clad arbor of graceful design occupies the 
centre of the square. 

But the principal charm of Trinidad is the beauti- 
ful scenery to be enjoyed from various high points in 
its vicinity. The easiest to be had, and one of the most 
charming, is the outlook from the Vijia, whose summit 
an active pedestrian can easily reach by walking. In 
all directions, inland and seaward, the views are beau- 
tiful, particularly when seen at the rising and the set- 
ting of the sun. The people are very hospitable, and 
the town, in the winter season, is gay and lively. It 
is very healthful, being swept by both the sea and 
the mountain breezes. The harbor, while spacious, is 
shallow, and not well protected from the open sea. 
Its trade is largely in sugar, there being numerous 
estates in the vicinity. 

CIENFUEGOS. 

The magnificent bay of Cienfuegos, or Jagua, to 
give it its proper name, like several others of the best- 
known bays of Cuba, has a narrow and tortuous en- 
trance, bounded by green hills, the interior being in- 
visible from the seaboard. The harbor is deep and 
spacious, admitting of vessels of twelve to fourteen 
feet draught being moored at its wharves, an advan- 
tage over several of the Cuban ports, while its surface 
is amply sheltered from the winds by the high sur- 
rounding hills. At the anchorage for large vessels 
there are twenty-seven feet of water. Las Casas called 
it the most magnificent harbor of the world, with its 



90 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

six square leagues of water area. Three rivers empty 
into it, each navigable for some distance inland, an 
advantage in view of the usually abominable roads of 
Cuba. 

Cienfuegos, like Cardenas, is called an American 
city, a large proportion of its 27,000 people speaking 
English, while the great bulk of its trade is with the 
United States. The town is comparatively modern, 
a fact to its advantage, the streets being of fair width 
and kept in a reasonably clean condition. It lies on 
a level plot of ground and is a busy and active place, 
enjoying an excellent commerce. 

As elsewhere in Cuba, the houses are one-storied, 
flat-roofed, and parti-colored, built in the Moorish 
fashion around an open patio, or court-yard, which is 
usually gay with flowering plants. The city is situ- 
ated in a region admirably adapted to sugar, some of 
the largest and finest cane-producing estates in the 
world being in its vicinity. The result of this and 
its shipping advantages has been a rapid growth and 
a large commerce, the export of sugar in a prosperous 
year being over $9,000,000. Considerable tobacco is 
also exported, while the import trade is considerable. 

The prosperity of the city is indicated by a number 
of handsome buildings, chief among which is the 
well known Terry Theatre, adjoining which is the 
largest and finest plaza on the island. This is adorned 
with numerous statues and with many ornamental 
plants. Southeast of the city rise the San Juan Moun- 
tains, whose picturesque aspect adds much to the 
attractiveness of the situation. 

Cienfuegos has railway connection with Santa Clara, 
about forty miles to the northeast, and was the centre 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 91 

of several interesting incidents during the late war, 
the chief of which was its brief blockade by Commo- 
dore Schley during his search for the Spanish fleet. 
Here, as at Santiago, the depth of the bay and its 
narrow, hill-bordered entrance, prevented his seeing 
what lay within. 

There is only one other coast town that calls for 
attention, Batabano, due south from Havana, and 
notable as occupying the original site of that city. 
It is little more than a village; its importance lying 
in its position as the terminus of the south-bound rail- 
way from Havana and the starting-point of a number 
of steamboat lines running to the Isle of Pines, and 
to Cienfuegos, Trinidad, and other southern ports. 

INLAND CITIES. 

Of the inland towns of note in Cuba the most west- 
erly is the city of Pinar del Rio, capital of the province 
of that name, and seated in the centre of the famous 
tobacco region of the Vuelto Abajo. It is situated 
118 miles southwest of Havana and fifteen miles from 
the southern coast, and has a population of about 
8000. The city stands 160 feet above sea-level, on the 
summit of a hill seventy feet high, and has both rail- 
way and highway connection with Havana. It is the 
most important commercial town in the province, its 
principal business being the handling of tobacco. 

Four miles distant is the small town of Consola- 
cion del Sur, around which are said to be more than 
800 plantations of the finest tobacco of Cuba. San 
Cristobal and Artemesia, towns of a few thousand 
population each, are important stations on the rail- 
road which traverses the province. Candelaria, six 



92 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

miles from San Cristobal, is of note for its mineral 
springs and the excellent product of its coffee planta- 
tions. Another railway line from Havana runs to 
Guanajay, twenty-six miles distant, a town of over 
5000 population, prettily situated in an active sugar- 
raising district, and about twelve miles from the sea. 

The province of Havana is the most thickly settled 
district of the island, its towns including, in addition 
to those mentioned, Guara, Giiines, Bejucal, Santiago 
de los Vegas, and San Antonio de los Baiios, of from 
5000 to 7000 population each, and a number of smaller 
size. Of the inland towns of Matanzas province, it 
will suffice to name Bemba (or Jovellanos), Macagua, 
and Colon, the latter two surrounded by great sugar 
estates. 

The city of Santa Clara, more commonly known as 
Villa Clara, lies central to the province of the same 
name, and is connected by railway with Cienfuegos, 
Cardenas, and other cities. It is of considerable size, 
but has no particular pretensions to beauty. Founded 
in 1689, it has now a population of about 12,000, and 
lies in the midst of a mineral country, yielding gold, 
silver, copper, plumbago, and asphaltum. There are 
indications, also, of natural gas near the city. This 
place has a reputation for the wealth of its people and 
the unusual beauty of its women. Situated about 200 
miles east of Havana, it forms the present termination 
in that direction of the railway system. 

Puerto Principe was originally located at the site 
now occupied by Nuevitas, but in 15 16 was removed 
to its present situation, forty-five miles inland, in 
order to escape piratical incursions. The modern 
Nuevitas serves as its port, being connected with it 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 93 

by railway. An Indian village named Camaguey pre- 
viously occupied the site, and it was by this name that 
the district and city were formerly known, and are 
still frequently spoken of by the Cubans. 

Santa Maria del Puerto Principe, to give it its full 
name, is the largest inland city of Cuba, its population 
being over 40,000, and in aspect is the most ancient 
and quaint on the island. It has narrow, winding 
streets, many of them unpaved and lacking sidewalks. 
There are several old churches, a theatre, government 
buildings, and other public edifices, most of its struct- 
ures being ancient in architecture. It is surrounded 
by the largest grazing district in Cuba, and owes its 
importance to the immense herds of cattle which roam 
over the adjacent plains. There is also much valuable 
timber. There is not a hotel in the city, but the people 
are very hospitable to strangers. Twenty-five miles 
to the north is the Cubitas Mountain district, the head- 
quarters of the Cuban insurrectionary government. 

Of the remaining inland towns it will suffice to name 
Bayamo, in the province of Santiago de Cuba, near 
which Marshal Campos suffered a severe repulse at 
the hands of Maceo, the Cuban general; and Holguin, 
a city of considerable size in the same province, con- 
nected by rail with Gibara, and the scene of the last 
military event of the Cuban insurrection. It was be- 
sieged by Garcia with a large army and vigorously de- 
fended by its Spanish garrison after the surrender of 
Santiago to the American forces. 

Bayamo is a very old city, founded in 1551, and is 
substantially built in the older Spanish style. It has 
eleven churches, some of them excellent examples of 
the ecclesiastical architecture of the past centuries. 



94 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The population is about 4000. Holguin, of some 
5500 inhabitants, Has fifteen miles south of Gibara, on 
a high plain and in a healthful situation. Founded in 
1740, it has the narrow and unpaved streets of the 
past, generally filthy in condition. It is very favorably 
situated for the development of the hard-wood in- 
dustry. 

HEALTH RESORTS. 

Batabano is the point of departure for the two most 
celebrated of the many mineral spring localities of 
Cuba, those of San Diego and Santa Fe. The baths 
of San Diego, reached by rail from Havana, by boat 
from Batabano to Dayaniguas, and by volante from 
the latter place, are situated in the Pinar del Rio prov- 
ince, on the banks of the river Caiguanabo, which 
from this point takes the name of San Diego. Here is 
a small, neatly-built town, with numerous hotels, 
which are crowded during the season. The abundant 
waters of the springs are conducted into a number of 
baths, all the springs containing sulphuric and car- 
bonic acids, sulphate of lime, bicarbonate of magnesia, 
and other mineral substances. The waters, used both 
externally and internally, are claimed to be excellent 
for several complaints, to which curative powers the 
pure hillside air undoubtedly adds. Among the scenes 
in the vicinity are some interesting caves, and a re- 
markable archway excavated by the river, 100 feet 
wide and sixty high, the arch divided by a grand pillar 
of rock. 

Santa Fe, on the Isle of Pines, gains its celebrity 
from its pure, dry, and balmy air, healthful with the 
resinous odors of the pine forests, and its mineral 
springs, which are impregnated with carbonate and 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 95 

sulphate of lime, chlorides of sodium and calcium, 
magnesia, nitrate of lime, and other minerals. The 
waters are claimed to be excellent for bronchial and 
various other affections, and in the coming era of 
Cuba this locality is likely to become a favorite place 
of resort for invalids. 

Mention has been made of the springs of Madruga 
and Santa Rita, and we need but speak briefly of those 
of San Antonio de los Banos, a small but pretty town 
on the river that drains the celebrated Lake Ari- 
guanabo, about twenty-three miles from Havana. Its 
health-giving baths have made it a favorite place of 
summer resort from Havana. The San Vicente min- 
eral springs, also of note, are near the town of Viiiales, 
in the Pinar del Rio province. 



VI. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

CITY LIFE. 

One of the first things to strike the visitor at Ha- 
vana, on his arrival in that city, is its multipHcity of 
bells, and the furious clanging with which, every 
morning, they greet the break of day, rudely dispell- 
ing sleep from all but those "to the manner born.*' 
From every church-tower they peal forth, not one but 
many, each doing its utmost in noise-making, until 
one would think that the whole town was in flames 
and this the tocsin of alarm. Add to this the lusty 
crowing of the game-cocks, which are kept in multi- 
tudes for gambling purposes, and of the plebeian cocks 
kept by most families as lords of their broods of fowls, 
and it becomes easy to understand the hasty flight of 
the deity of slumber. 

In truth, noise is native to Havana. Its streets are 
paved with stone, — the heat banishes asphaltum as a 
paving material and the dampness would soon rot out 
a wood pavement. As the usual condition of the 
streets drives most of the people — all the ladies — to 
carriages, the rattle of wheels over the stone pave- 
ments is incessant, and one's ears are greeted with a 
constant din. The two-wheeled volante, once uni- 
versal, has been succeeded by the four-wheeled vic- 
toria, of which there are thousands for public hire 
about the town, carriages and horses alike often the 
worse for wear; but prices are reasonable and the 
vehicles largely patronized. Street-cars also have 
96 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 97 

made their way thither, and add their contingent of 
noise. 

It is rare for a lady to venture abroad except in a 
vehicle, and walking, for which their tiny feet seem 
ill adapted, has become almost a lost art with the fair 
Havanese. In dancing, however, they show surpris- 
ing powers of endurance, and can severely tax the 
staying-powers of their gentlemen friends. The 
Cuban ladies mature early and fade early. Marriage 
is common at ages at which the girls of the North 
have still before them years of school Ufe, and their 
comeliness dies away prematurely. But at their best 
the ladies of Cuba are strikingly graceful in movement, 
their forms, though well-rounded, sylph-like in light- 
ness, their voices low and sweet, their deep-black eyes 
vivacious and sparkling, their whole aspect instinct 
with charm. At home they dress simply in delicate 
muslins and linens, but abroad their costume is apt to 
set those with a developed color taste wild by its bold 
combinations of glaringly inharmonious hues, while 
the superabundant use of paint and powder is of no 
advantage to their beauty. 

There is one article of dress without which a Cuban 
lady would be utterly lost, — the fan. Accustomed to 
the use of this indispensable requisite from childhood, 
she becomes strikingly graceful and 'coquettish in its 
use. This pretty and costly article, formed of rich 
materials, is wonderfully expressive in her hands, — an 
instrument of flirtation that seems fairly to speak in 
its adroit pantomime, and with which almost every 
desired phase of feeling may be expressed. 

Lacking intellectual pursuits, these ladies fair are 
apt to spend the day in listless rocking and fanning, 

7 



98 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

varied with gossipy chat and broken by a mid-day 
siesta, their labors being Hmited to a Httle sewing and 
embroidery. After five o'clock, life on the Paseo be- 
comes animated; the ladies, gorgeously attired but 
bonnetless, wearing as head-dress only the dark tresses 
supplied by nature, driving in handsome carriages; 
the gentlemen on horseback or on foot, the broad 
sidewalks being filled with well-dressed promenaders. 
Later on they may resort to the Parque Central to 
enjoy the music of the military band, and chat or flirt 
with their admirers, winding up the evening, perhaps, 
in the mazy circlings of the dance or in their boxes at 
the theatre or opera. 

In the furnishing of the houses the rocking-chair 
is a necessity of the situation, a well-furnished sitting- 
room having perhaps a dozen of these cane-seated 
conveniences. These, ranged, in the usual custom, in 
two exact lines from the window to the rear of the 
room, with a woollen mat between them on the floor, 
present an idea of order that is as inartistic as it may 
be thought convenient. 

The broad, projecting window of Cuban dwellings, 
reaching from floor to ceiling, with its absence of glass 
and its cell-like bars of iron, reveals the interior of the 
dwellings to the passers-by in a way that in colder 
cHmes would not be deemed desirable, and in some 
cases not decorous. A loose lace curtain is sometimes 
used, but rarely, as the freest circulation of air is de- 
manded; and the ladies of the household do not seem 
to mind being observed in dishabille. In fact, they 
come freely to the windows to gaze out or to chat with 
passing acquaintances, and may frequently be seen, 
like voluntary captives, " looking through the bars." 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 99 

Inside the houses doors have no existence, curtains 
dividing room from room and from corridor. Where 
privacy is desired, these, usually looped back, are 
dropped; and it is the custom to speak before ven- 
turing to pass a closed curtain. But as the division 
walls between apartments, in private houses and hotels 
alike, often reach but two- thirds of the way to the 
ceiling, actual privacy is a thing out of the question. 
The need of a free circulation of air overpowers all 
other requisites in a Cuban dwelling, the people living 
practically in the open air, and doubtless being the 
better in health for so doing. 

While during the day the coolest rooms of the house 
are sought by the family and its guests, the flat roof 
being left to the laundress, at night the roof is the 
place where all gather to enjoy the cool breeze from 
the ocean. At this hour the long rows of level house- 
tops, when illumined by the beams of the moon, are 
cheerful and attractive with their happy family gather- 
ings, peals of gay laughter floating across from house 
to house, songs, or the sound of instruments making 
the air musical, and from afar the music of the mili- 
tary band now and then swelling into audible strains. 
There the people often sit until late at night, smoking, 
chatting, and enjoying the balmy coolness of the mid- 
night air. 

Some other things may be said regarding the Cuban 
dwellings. One peculiarity, to a Northerner, is that 
such a thing as a chimney is unknown. It is the con- 
stant eflfort to avoid, not to invite, heat, and for this 
reason even wooden floors are not in use, the floors 
being laid in marble or tiles. There is a similar ab- 
sence of carpeting, beyond the long rug which parts 



lOo OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the rows of chairs, and mattresses are rejected for 
sleeping purposes in favor of stretched canvas beds, 
v^ith upper and under sheets. But an indispensable 
requisite of sleeping-apartments is the mosquito net- 
ting, if one wishes to enjoy his slumber in comfort. 

While the Cuban ladies during the day are home- 
keepers, the men, as a rule, look upon their dwellings 
only as sleeping, not as living, places. The average 
Cuban rarely takes his meals at home, his spare hours 
being given to his club, while cafes and restaurants 
flourish under his constant patronage. As a result of 
this neglect of home life, the domestic virtues are at 
a low ebb in Cuba. The almost utter absence of books 
and reading matter, the lack of occupation for women 
of the higher class, the neglect of their homes by the 
men, all tend to such a result, and a lowered condi- 
tion of morals is naturally to be expected under such 
circumstances. 

Business, of course, demands a period of attention; 
but many dispose of this in the mornings, and spend 
the remainder of the day in festive relaxation, in the 
cafes or in worse places, yielding to the enervating 
influence of the climate and passing their time in lassi- 
tude and luxurious ease. Love of music is universal, 
as with the natives of warm climates generally; and 
the band concerts at the Plaza de Armas or the Parque 
Central attract multitudes of appreciative listeners, the 
ladies in full evening dress, in their carriages or on 
the seats of the square, the gentlemen promenading 
and chatting. 

At night, in the fashionable drinking-saloons, gather 
multitudes of the lovers of sport and excitement, 
drawn thither by the blaze of light reflected by a pro- 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. loi 

fusion of mirrors, the noise and vivacity, and the 
gambhng that is to be seen openly and everywhere, 
— games of dominoes, chess, checkers, or cards going 
on at which all stake their money, lookers-on as well 
as players. All classes congregate there, and the 
gaming continues until late in the night, while drink- 
ing is continual, though not usually of strong liquors. 
Of course, there are cafes which ladies can patronize, 
and in which ices and sherbets are to be had equal to 
those served in the United States. The ice-creams, 
indeed, are not up to the best American standard, but 
the sherbets, flavored with the luscious native fruits, 
are delicious. Ladies accompanied by gentlemen visit 
these places freely. If alone, they are served in their 
carriages at the door. 

Smoking is universal in Cuba, all classes, from the 
highest to the lowest, constantly fumigating them- 
selves with tobacco, and ladies indulging in cigarette 
smoking almost as freely as the men. Everywhere 
and on all occasions the people of all classes smoke, 
— between the courses at meals, in the office, the street, 
the cafe, the theatre, at feasts and at funerals. Gen- 
tlemen able to purchase them are said to consume the 
equivalent of a dozen cigars each day, and the ladies 
sometimes half that quantity, though of late years the 
cigarette has largely taken the place of the cigar, and 
is used to an extent that keeps a large class of the 
population busy in its manufacture. Snuff-taking and 
chewing, on the contrary, are very rare, smoke being 
the favorite mode of disposing of the weed. 

In the summer season, those who wish to escape the 
mid-day heats may make excursions to a number of 
attractive places in the vicinity, where pure and fresh 



I02 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

air can be breathed. One of these is Maricanao, a 
neat and pretty village, reached by a short railroad 
journey, and much frequented by those who wish to 
escape from the city heat to a cooler and more airy 
situation. There are various pleasant walks, rich 
with tropical vegetation; while the mineral springs 
found here furnish another attraction, and surf-bath- 
ing may be enjoyed on the near-by sea-shores. 
About half-way back to Havana is a smaller but not 
less pretty village, Puentes Grandes, also a place of 
summer resort. At Guanabacoa, the baths of Santa 
Rita, of which we have already spoken, attract num- 
bers of visitors. 

Those wealthy enough to make longer and more 
expensive flittings may spend the hot season in cool 
retreats among the hills, in their comfortable country- 
houses, or may seek the medicinal waters of San 
Diego, Santa Fe, or some of the various other mineral 
springs of Cuba, whose waters are used for both drink- 
ing and bathing. 

Havana is well provided with facilities for bathing, 
there being a number of well-arranged private estab- 
lishments in addition to the sea-water baths excavated 
from the coral rocks. These are somewhat fairly 
patronized by the men of the city, though neither men 
nor women seem overly inclined to indulgence in the 
bath. As for the Cuban women, it seems to be a 
question whether they ever bathe at all. Some claim 
that a full bath with a woman consists in moistening 
the corner of a towel with rum and rubbing with it 
hands, face, and neck, — though one cannot help think- 
ing this a libel as applied to ladies of the well-bred 
class. But it is certain that the Cubans do not prac- 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 103 

tise the personal cleanliness of natives of many other 
tropical lands. 

One thing further needs to be said here of Cuban 
society, that childhood disappears at so early an age 
that it can be but half enjoyed. One may observe 
boys and girls of but ten or twelve years of age dressed 
like young ladies and gentlemen; walking arm and 
arm, with a ludicrous aping of the fashions of their 
elders, in the park paths; or attending balls, their 
faces painted and their forms bedizened in the Cuban 
fashion; though childhood is apt to reassert itself by 
their falling asleep in odd corners during the height 
of the festivities. Small boys with high hats and 
evening dress-suits, and little girls in long dresses 
with low necks, look like foolish masqueraders, while 
these children are versed in the habits of those three 
times their age, and are familiar with much that seems 
foreign to childish life. Indeed, at twelve the women 
are not far short of the marriageable age; and it is 
common to find sedate mothers of families at twenty. 

Hospitality is a trait for which the people of Cuba 
receive much credit, and fairly so to some extent, 
though it takes on strange manifestations that mean 
nothing but the language of compliment. The fashion 
is one imported from Spain. When one enters for the 
first time a Cuban mansion, the host and hostess are 
profuse in placing all their possessions at his service 
— without an idea that he will think of accepting the 
ofifer. Praise an article, be it ring, picture, or other 
article of value, and you are at once told that it is 
yours — though it would be the reverse of good breed- 
ing for you to attempt to take the giver at his word. 
In smaller matters hospitality is not wanting, though 



I04 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

one may soon wear out his welcome. Flattery Is a 
very common trait, and profuse compliment to ladies 
is so freely dealt in that they accept it as a matter 
of course, knowing well how much it is worth. It 
need hardly be said that this extravagant outward 
show is lip service only, and that for truly generous 
treatment ladies must seek colder climes. 

A subject which calls for passing attention is the 
remarkable development of Freemasonry in Cuba, 
particularly in view of the active opposition of the 
Catholic Church to the Masonic brotherhood. In 
proportion to the population there are more Masons 
in Cuba than in any other country in the world. This 
helps to show the slight hold which the Church has 
upon the Cubans, many of whom, restricted by state 
enactment to the tenets of one religious sect, have 
sought Freemasonry as an acceptable substitute. The 
rites of Masonry gratify the religious instinct inherent 
in all mankind, sustaining the worship of the Supreme 
Being in freedom from sectarian trammels; while the 
aid in times of need extended by the society to its 
brotherhood has helped largely in making it popular. 
It has been bitterly opposed by the Church. At times 
attendance on a Masonic meeting has been deemed 
a crime equal to that of high treason. Some of the 
captain-generals, b^mg Masons themselves, have sup- 
ported the order; others have bitterly persecuted it; 
but it has survived all opposition, and is a living and 
important element in Cuban society to-day. 

FOOD AND BEVERAGES. 

Something has been already said about the Cuban 
hotels. These we cannot fairly speak of as good, bad, 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 105 

and indifferent, since the first adjective rarely applies 
in the case of a guest accustomed to northern hotel 
life. Without further reference to their general ac- 
commodations, or lack of accommodation, we shall 
confine ourselves here to some remarks about what 
they offer to satisfy the appetite. 

It is the custom in Cuba, on rising, to break the 
fast with a cup of coffee or chocolate, and a roll or 
morsel of dry toast, — " Coffee with or without milk?" 
being about the first question one hears after being 
awakened by the clanging of the bells. Fruit is also 
used to some extent. Cubans, however, prefer to re- 
serve the fruit to begin their breakfast with, the hours 
for this meal ranging from nine to eleven. 

In the hotels the lower floor is used for the com- 
monalty and for business purposes, the dining-room 
and parlor for guests being on the second floor, the 
table well supplied with colored glass, silver, and other 
table-ware; while the parlor is inviting with its cool- 
looking floor of marble, its flower-stand, and its easy- 
going rocking-chairs, in which one may nap at will. 

Eggs in some of the many ways in which Cubans 
cook them form the opening dish at breakfast, stewed 
tomatoes being poured over them when poached, and 
boiled rice served with them. One- may have his 
choice of fish, there being many kinds. These are 
best fried in olive oil, served dry and well browned. 
Shrimps are abundant, and form a wholesome and 
favorite dish, eaten with salt or as a salad. The meats 
follow, being generally, for breakfast, stewed or broiled 
liver, mutton chops, veal, or beefsteak, — the last form- 
ing usually rather poor provender in Cuba. One or 
two hashes are served, and for vegetables fried po- 



io6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

tatoes, and fried or roasted plantains or bananas. The 
sweet potato is of excellent quality. As a relish, water- 
cress, an abundant product of the island, is served. 
Fruits are usually supplied in profusion, and, as a dish 
native to the island, guava jelly with cheese, a favorite 
Cuban relish. The inevitable cigarette and cafe solo, 
or coffee without milk, conclude the meal. 

As for butter, the least said about it the better. The 
firm, sweet, fragrant butter of the north is alien to 
the Cuban climate; instead you will receive a soft, 
yellowish material in a wide-mouthed bottle, of which 
the sight is likely to quite satisfy the appetite. 

Dinner is taken in the evening, after the day's work 
is over and the torrid heat is modified. It is suffi- 
ciently elaborate, but presents nothing peculiar, a 
considerable variety of soups, fish, and meats being 
served, with the limited number of vegetables that 
Cuba can boast, — sweet potatoes, tomatoes, beans, 
cabbage, and lettuce. Rice, indeed, is the most com- 
mon vegetable. Then comes a custard or canned 
fruit, — pastry being rarely served, — followed by coffee 
and the ubiquitous cigar. A peculiarity is that the 
entire meal is served at once, with the exception of the 
dessert, — this alike at home and in hotels, — the custom 
of serving in courses not having been introduced. 

A considerable variety of drinks serve the Cubans 
as cooling or refreshing beverages, first and most 
common of all being the Vino Catalan, a wine sold 
very cheaply, and found on every table, whether of 
rich or poor. At the cafe it largely takes the place 
of water. It is a very strong wine, of dark claret 
color, and is generally diluted. Ale is as common a 
beverage, of excellent quality, and found everywhere. 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 107 

Coffee is one of the most common of drinks, with 
milk on rising, without milk after eating. The 
national drink of the island is the naranjada, or 
orangeade, a favorite and very agreeable beverage. 
Limonada, or lemonade, is also much used, though 
usually made from limes. The Cuban chocolate can- 
not be surpassed. Made of the consistency of thick 
gruel, and served in delicate little cups, its nutritious 
quality renders it an excellent thing to take when a 
long ride is contemplated. 

The Cubans are fond of drinking, and drinking- 
saloons and bar-rooms are everywhere in evidence, 
where strong liquors are dispensed, gin in particular. 
This is sold at a very low price, and seems to be drunk 
freely by the common people; yet the rare appearance 
of a drunken man goes to indicate that the Cubans are 
a very sober people. 

They have numerous non-intoxicating drinks, of 
which the most common and popular is made of white 
sugar and water, with the yelk of an egg. Other 
popular beverages are orchata, a milk-white drink 
made of almond juice and sugar; agrass, a slightly 
acid drink made from the juice of unripe grapes; 
cebada, or barley-water, and various others. What 
are known as panalcs are made of the white of eggs 
and sugar. Two or three of these, placed in a glass 
of water and allowed to dissolve, with a few drops of 
lime-juice, make a cooling and delicious drink. A 
summer beverage is made by adding a little gin to 
cocoa-nut water, and somewhat stronger drinks by 
mixing absinthe with water or with aniseed decoc- 
tion. 



io8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

STREET SCENES. 

For the principal retail business establishments of 
Havana we must seek certain streets of the old town, 
Ricla, Obispo, and O'Reilly Streets, running to the 
bay, and Mercaderes Street, crossing these at right 
angles. Obispo Street is one of the liveliest in the 
city, its rows of well-filled stores extending from the 
bay to the old walls; while the bustle of carriages 
and of people on foot keep it in a state of incessant 
activity. The shops are usually quite open in front, 
and with their queer names, the narrowness of the 
streets, and the colored awnings above, form a pecu- 
liar and curious spectacle to foreign eyes. 

There are many fine stores for the sale of dry-goods, 
millinery, china, glassware, jewelry, and other articles 
of taste and luxury. Silver-ware and jewelry stores 
are particularly numerous, and present a glittering 
appearance with their display of well-filled glass cases 
and of rich wares on the shelves. In shopping, ladies 
rarely leave their carriages, — goods being brought out 
to them at the sidewalk, while dress-goods are usu- 
ally sent to the homes of customers to be examined 
and selected from. The custom is to ask a price be- 
yond that expected to be paid, which is usually reduced 
about one-half before the bargain is struck. 

One peculiarity of Havana is its mingling of high 
and low life, — the pretentious mansion often standing 
at close elbows with the humble dwelling of the ar- 
tisan, or even the negro hut. In the business quarter 
a handsome private house may stand beside a shabby- 
looking warehouse; while people of the best class do 
not hesitate to live in or over stores or warehouses, 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 109 

a well-appointed dwelling often occupying the second 
floor of a stirring place of business, entrance being 
made, perhaps, through the litter of a grocer's shop 
or other undesirable surroundings. 

Within the places of business life often goes on in 
a wholesomely patriarchal fashion. The passer-by 
may see the merchant and his clerks seated at their 
breakfast in full view of the street, the table not in- 
frequently spread in the store itself. About noon 
business suffers a general interregnum; the hour of 
the siesta has come, and sleep for an interval seals 
the eyes of the late active multitude, merchants and 
laborers, men and women, yielding to the gentle in- 
fluence of the god of slumber. 

Aside from the stores, the streets themselves are full 
of busy and curious scenes, peripatetic venders taking 
possession of the contracted avenues, and making the 
air echo with their cries. Here are the fruit-venders, 
their horses provided with panniers laden deeply with 
oranges and other native fruits, whose virtues they 
vociferously proclaim. After them may come a 
poultry-dealer, mounted on a donkey between two 
baskets filled with live chickens, which thrust their 
helpless heads through the net-work covering and 
plaintively announce their presence. Here comes a 
dtilce seller, basket on head or arm and waiter of 
sweetmeats in hand, mainly the preserved fruits of 
the country. Next may appear a Chinaman, a coolie 
freed from service and now seeking by the sale of 
crockery to gain money enough to carry him home 
again. Instead of shouting his wares, he signifies his 
presence by a sharp, rattling sound, made by dex- 
terously manipulating a handful of plates. 



no OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Most singular of these venders is the milkman, who, 
instead of carting his milk in cans, usually drives the 
cows themselves from door to door, milking for each 
customer the quantity demanded, and then passing 
on to the next. At times a calf follows, muzzled to 
prevent its interference, while its presence induces the 
cow to yield her milk more freely. Of course the 
needs of the calf occasionally have to be attended to. 
This is a custom imported from Southern Spain and 
Italy, and one which has the advantage of assuring a 
fresh, pure article. 

Occasionally one of the narrow streets is filled 
almost from side to side by a deeply-laden donkey, 
whose head and legs alone appear under its wide- 
spreading load of green fodder, brought to the city 
for horse-feed, and constituting, with corn, the only 
provender of Havana horses. Oats or other grains 
are not raised on the island, and the stalks and soft 
ears of unripe maize and the tender tops of the sugar- 
cane are alone fed to the equine family. 

To return to the subject of Chinese coolies, pre- 
viously mentioned, it may be said that as laborers they 
have long since proved failures as plantation hands, 
and none have been brought to Cuba for several years. 
They were unsuited to the climate and the service, 
and during their eight-year term of contract the mor- 
tality among them is said to have reached as high as 
sixty-seven per cent. Of those that survived, many 
of them became lame, half-starved, ragged mendi- 
cants, numbers of them being blind. Those able to 
work are engaged in cigar-making, keep small stores 
or fruit stands, or otherwise seek by honest industry 
to save enough to return to their native land. There 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. iii 

are no laundrymen among them, as in the United 
States, the women of color quite absorbing this oc- 
cupation. 

Aside from the cooHes, beggars are abundant, Ha- 
vana having its small army of them; while the same 
may be said of all the cities that have grown up under 
the influence of Spain. These gentry have their har- 
vest on Saturdays. It is the custom for shops and 
families to supply themselves with a quantity of small 
rolls of bread baked for the purpose, one being usu- 
ally given to every mendicant who applies on that 
day. Carrying a large canvas bag for their gratuities, 
they usually obtain enough, eked out with other gifts 
of food, to keep them alive during the week. 

Among the habitants of the street, the negro, in 
every shade of complexion from deep black to dusky 
white, is always and everywhere to be seen. The free 
negroes have long been disposed to seek the cities and 
large towns, where they form a healthy and vigorous 
part of the population, — often an idle and vicious part. 
They act as porters, stevedores, and light laborers in 
various pursuits, the negro women doing all the wash- 
ing and ironing, and spending a fair percentage of 
their gains in the cheap jewelry and gaudy attire in 
which they love to flaunt. Attire, however, is never 
wasted on their progeny, the negro children of both 
sexes being left in a state of complete nudity until 
they are nine or ten years of age. In the country the 
same practice prevails in regard to white children, 
while in the hot season laborers generally wear just 
the modicum of clothing that decency demands. 

Sunday is by no means a day of rest and worship 
in Cuba. Ordinary occupations go on, while the 



112 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

churches are so thinly attended that the services seem 
performed almost to the empty air. Out-doors all 
the ordinary sports and amusements are intensified. 
The day opens with a combined ringing of bells, noise 
of trumpets, and roll of drums, accentuated by the 
firing of cannon from the forts. It is the day set aside 
for the military review, the bull-fight, and the masked 
ball. The stores are open, street venders are busy 
as usual, open-air performances of all kinds are to be 
seen, from the Punch and Judy show to athletic ex- 
hibitions and gambling devices of various kinds. 
Everything seems in full activity except religious ob- 
servances, which are almost lost in the general atten- 
tion to secular pursuits. Churches are not lacking; 
in fact, they are somewhat over numerous; but their 
visitors are mainly children and negro women, white 
women being rarely seen, while to Cuban men in gen- 
eral Sunday is but a day of revelry. Only on festive 
occasions are the churches thronged. 

THE GAMBLING PROPENSITY. 

The Cubans are born gamblers. In the clubs, the 
cafes, all places of relaxation, games of chance are in 
constant activity, and betting is the universal custom. 
The government, instead of seeking to check this pro- 
pensity, has taken advantage of it and done its utmost 
to encourage it. There has long been a government 
lottery at Havana, with semi-monthly drawings; while 
the selling of lottery tickets, usually in fractional parts, 
is one of the recognized and active industries. These 
are openly hawked in all places of public resort, and 
the demand seems equal to the supply, since almost 
every one invests in them, rich and poor, white and 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 113 

black alike. It is customary for mercantile houses to 
invest a certain sum monthly in these drawings, with 
the forlorn hope that some time the great prize may 
be drawn. The story is told that some years ago a 
number of slaves on a plantation clubbed together to 
buy a ticket, which drew a prize of $40,000. They 
bought their freedom, sixteen of them in all. Of 
these, two returned to Africa, four joined the insur- 
gents in 1870, and the remainder soon killed them- 
selves with dissipation. It is difficult to find any one 
in Cuba who is the better off for his prizes from the 
lottery, though for years it has netted the government 
more than $1,000,000 annually. 

It seemed a severe example of tyranny to the good 
people of Santiago when, in 1898, General Wood, the 
American military governor, ordered that this open 
gambling should cease. The people grumbled, but 
obeyed; only, perhaps, to make up for the depriva- 
tion in secret. Once the land is their own there will 
undoubtedly be open doors to the gambling fraternity 
again, for the practice is ingrained in the Cuban con- 
stitution. 

Of the gaming amusements of Cuban cities the 
cock-pit is one of the most frequented, the love of 
cock-fighting being as fully developed in the native 
Cuban as that of gambling. The pit is a circular 
enclosure, always crowded with eager observers and 
gamesters, and daily a very considerable amount of 
money changes ownership in this cruel amusement. 
The birds are of a native breed, said to be superior to 
the English game-cock in pluck and endurance. 

Cruel as this sport is, it falls below that of the bull- 
fight, another favorite Cuban amusement, exhibitions 



114 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

being given at Havana every Sunday afternoon. The 
arena, situated in the Regla suburb of the city, has 
seats for some 10,000 persons, surrounding a space of 
about an acre in extent, in which the sanguinary con- 
tests take place. These it is not our purpose to de- 
scribe. It will sufhce to say that they serve as occa- 
sions to exercise the universal passion for betting, 
and that money is lost and won freely on the per- 
formances of favorite bulls and matadores. 

Holy week is the occasion in which religious ob- 
servance gains special control in Havana, — though the 
season of serious devotion is followed by an utter wild- 
ness of merry-making. The seeming devoutness of 
the Cubans during this week, from Palm Sunday on- 
ward, would go far to convince any one then landing 
in Havana that he was in a country of earnest wor- 
shippers. Solemnity prevails. On Sunday the cathe- 
dral is thronged, each person seeking to obtain a 
branch of holy palm from the priests. On Holy 
Thursday, as midday arrives, the clanging bells of the 
churches suddenly cease to ring, and almost in a min- 
ute every vehicle disappears from the streets. The 
garrison, with reversed arms, marches silently through 
the principal avenues. The flags on forts and ship- 
ping are lowered to half-mast, and the churches 
draped in mourning. On Friday an ef¥igy of the 
Saviour is solemnly carried through the streets, all 
who follow uncovering their heads, while devout 
women frequently kneel in the street as it passes. 

On Saturday, at ten in the morning, a merry peal 
suddenly sounds from the cathedral bells; the other 
churches follow; solemnity suddenly gives way to 
gayety, vehicles once more crowd the streets, holiday 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 115 

flags wave in the breeze, the cannon roar from every 
fort, and madness seems to take possession of the 
populace. 

Money is now spent with unwonted freedom, and 
all places of public entertainment do a thriving busi- 
ness, — the people having saved up for a season of free 
spending in carnival week. The public masquerade 
balls attract multitudes of all classes. Chief among 
these is that held on Sunday night at the Tacon Thea- 
tre, with which the merry-making closes. Here the 
parquette is floored over and the entire lower floor 
converted into a grand ball-room. The galleries and 
boxes are thronged with spectators. Two military 
bands alternate in playing all night long. Shortly after 
midnight an emblematic dance is performed by a 
trained party of men, women, and boys, all masked 
and in costume. Near morning the affair ends in a 
lively frolic. There is suspended at a distance above 
the floor a large paper globe, which blindfolded volun- 
teers, armed with sticks, walk towards and try to hit. 
Their failures are greeted with shouts of laughter, 
which are kept up until some one hits the bag fairly, 
when down come its contents of bonbons, toys, and 
trinkets amid a general shout of applause and a wild 
scramble for the prizes. Meanwhile the streets are 
thronged with maskers and mummers and the wildest 
license of merriment prevails. On every Sunday after- 
noon during the carnival and Lenten periods the 
Prado is filled with a solid Hne of carriages, occupied 
by maskers in fancy costumes, and the fun of pelting 
everybody in sight with flowers, paper rolls, and small 
bags of flour goes actively on. 



ii6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

RURAL LIFE. 

The markets of Havana and the other large cities 
of Cuba introduce us to a phase of hfe not native to 
city streets, that of the Montcro, or countryman, hun- 
dreds of whom enter the city in the early morning to 
dispose of the produce of their farms or gardens, long 
lines of mules or horses, their panniers well laden with 
food stuffs, serving as means of carriage. They bring 
with them sweet potatoes, onions, and cabbages, — the 
principal vegetables sold in Cuban markets, — fruits in 
considerable variety, and maloja, or horse fodder, an 
inferior kind of corn that grows with such lack of 
labor as to suit the laziness of many of the small truck 
farmers, and which is not allowed to ripen, but is cut 
green for fodder. 

Let us follow these swarthy-skinned market-men to 
their homes and observe them in their native atmos- 
phere. 

The Montero is none too fond of labor. He may 
plough a little, — his plough perhaps the crooked stick 
of immemorial times, — and do some little work in his 
fields; but he is apt to hire a negro to do the most of 
this labor, and confine his share of the work to gather- 
ing the produce and taking it to market. Cultivation 
is an easy process; the fertility of the soil can be safely 
trusted to; little more is demanded than to thrust the 
seed into the ground and leave the growing of the 
crop to unassisted nature. 

In truth, the fertility of the soil of the Cuban low- 
lands is something marvellous. While the mountains 
are mainly composed of coral rock, the soil of the 
plains and valleys seems largely made up of fossil 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 117 

matter of oceanic origin, and is extremely rich in the 
vital elements of lime and phosphate, — so inexhaust- 
ibly rich, indeed, that fertilizers are rarely used except 
for tobacco. On some of the old sugar plantations 
the land has borne the same crop for a hundred years 
without fertilization. 

Provided by nature with such a soil as this, the 
Montero does little to improve it, satisfied to get 
through life with the least labor possible. The es- 
fancia, or market-produce farm, varying from a dozen 
to over a hundred acres in size, is used largely for 
growing maloja, for raising poultry, and for pasturing 
cattle, — chickens, eggs, milk, and cheese being pro- 
duced for city consumption. Only a small part of 
the farm is devoted to garden stuff, which cannot be 
grown successfully without skill and attention, and 
another section is devoted to melons, plantains, and 
sweet potatoes, maloja usually occupying more than 
half the farm. 

As a result, though the land is capable of producing 
the greatest variety and profusion of food stuffs, the 
city markets are none too well supplied, and much 
food is imported that might be abundantly produced 
on the island. No grain is raised except Indian corn, 
and this mainly to be cut green for fodder. The soil 
is not suited for cereals; and it is said that there is 
not a flour-mill on the island, the United States sup- 
plying Cuba with its flour. In many of the estancias 
the business of cultivating the soil is abandoned for 
that of burning the coral rock of the island into lime, 
only enough corn being raised to feed the draught 
oxen used to transport the lime to market. 

On the larger estancias fruits are grown ifi consider- 



ii8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

able variety, the orange, the lemon, the mango, vari- 
ous kinds of melons, etc., it only being necessary 
in this culture to plant the seed and pluck the fruit. 
Nature has made the island a garden, and with careful 
and intelligent cultivation it could be made to yield 
a superabundance of fruits and vegetables, but as 
managed barely enough is grown to prevent scarcity 
in the neighboring cities. 

" The rural population of the island," says a Cuban 
authority, " has rusticity, but not the boasted sim- 
plicity of the European peasant. Our countryman is 
astute though frank, boastful though brave, and super- 
stitious if not religious. His ruling passions are gam- 
bling (particularly at cock-fights, of which he is very 
fond) and cofTee, which he drinks at all hours; his 
favorite food pork and the plantain, usually roasted." 

When in ordinary dress he wears a pair of loose 
pantaloons, with a leather girdle at the waist, a shirt 
of fancy colors, his bare feet thrust into slippers, a 
handkerchief on his head or around his neck, and a 
broad-brimmed palm-leaf hat. A coat is rarely worn, 
and the shirt is oftener outside than inside the panta- 
loons. 

The Montero is a born horseman, and never stirs 
from home except upon the back of his favorite steed. 
He is accustomed from childhood to""th^ saddle, and 
there are no better riders anywhere. The Cuban 
horse is small and delicate of limb, but can carry a 
heavy weight, and has great powers of endurance. It 
is docile, eats little, and needs no shelter. It can be 
thoroughly trusted not to wander away from Its mas- 
ter's house. It was to this class of horses tHat the in- 
surrectionists owed much of their success. They were 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 119 

all horsemen, and as skilful as Indians when in the 
saddle. 

The women deserve the credit of being more in- 
dustrious than the men, as they have their domestic 
duties to attend to, and often superintend the farm 
and weave a little cotton for home use. Sufficient 
cotton is grown for this purpose; but, though the 
finest quality of sea-island cotton can be grown at 
points along the coast, its cultivation has not proved a 
success. They also prepare from egg-shells Cascarilla 
powder, so favorite a cosmetic with Cuban ladies that 
over 100,000 pounds of it are annually consumed. 

The woman dresses as simply as the man, — a cami- 
son, or frock, a kerchief around her neck, and slippers 
on her bare feet constituting her usual attire. On her 
head is worn a broad-brimmed straw hat. The chil- 
dren are dressed still more simply, being left in a state 
of nature until nine or ten years of age. These people 
marry very young, — from thirteen to fifteen for girls, 
from sixteen to eighteen for youths. Their families 
are almost always large, and the chief increase of the 
population takes place in the rural districts. There 
is abundant room for them, for nine-tenths of the soil 
of the island await cultivation. 

The dwellings of the rural population are of the 
simplest kind, being little more than one-story huts, 
put together with poles and palm leaves, and thatched 
sufficiently to keep out the rain. Air is welcomed, and 
if a door is added it always stands open. The floor is 
often of earth, and the hut contains a living-room and 
one or two sleeping-rooms, while a roofed passage 
connects it with out-buildings, where the women per- 
form their cooking and other household labors. 



I20 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

These people differ in their customs, and even in 
their food, from the inhabitants of the cities. They 
take but two meals a day; though coffee is inordinately 
used, being drunk at morning and night and at inter- 
vals during the day, particularly when a guesf appears. 
They are freely hospitable, and the guest who is 
present at meal-time is expected to take a seat at the 
table without waiting for an invitation. To fail to do 
so would be an offence. 

The morning meal of the small farmer consists of 
fried pork and boiled rice, with roasted plantains in 
place of bread. The dinner embraces the same viands 
with the exception of the pork, which is replaced with 
beef, roast pig, or game; or, more commonly, with 
ajiaco, the national dish, a favorite stew composed 
of fresh meat and vegetables of various kinds, with 
plenty of broth. Rice is cooked in it, and it forms a 
cheap, palatable, and nutritious dish. Various other 
savory dishes are used, which need not be described. 

Amusements are not wanting to the Monteros. In 
addition to their favorite cock-fight, they have a goose- 
fight, not less cruel, in which the sport consists in the 
effort to pluck the head off a live goose when at full 
gallop. There are various religious feasts and fes- 
tivals, celebrated by processions, games, dancing, and 
other sports. During the carnival, or other seasons 
of merry-making, it is a common custom, in the 
Vuelta Arriba, for groups of masked and oddly cos- 
tumed horsemen to ride through the streets with 
grotesque antics. Their dances have much in them 
that is peculiar, many of the old-fashioned customs, 
long vanished in the cities, being retained. 

The rural Cubans are glaringly ignorant. Books 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 121 

and schools are unknown among them, and the in- 
habitants of Central Africa are not more lacking in 
intellectual cultivation. Indolence and ignorance, in- 
deed, are their prevailing characteristics. They are 
as much addicted as the city people to gambling, but 
less so to drinking, being in the latter respect very 
temperate. They seem to have no taste for ardent 
spirits, the extent of their indulgence being to drink 
the ordinary claret of the country, and anything 
stronger is seldom imbibed. 

The recent insurrection in Cuba was most severely 
felt by these helpless country people; the young men 
joining in numbers the Cuban army, the old men, 
women, and children being driven under Weyler's 
orders to the cities, their houses and crops destroyed, 
and they left to perish in thousands of starvation. Not 
less than 200,000 of them are said to have met this 
cruel fate. 

Let us now seek the very different scene of planta- 
tion life, and observe how time passes in the mansion 
of a sugar planter. This we find to be strikingly un- 
like the humble home and Hfe of the Montero. As a 
rule, the houses of the planters are large and roomy 
stone mansions, with immense doors and windows, 
as in city houses, the windows without glass. Tiles 
of burnt clay or marble cover the floor, and no provi- 
sion is made for fire, it being a rare occasion when 
need of this is felt in Cuban air. 

In front and rear there are usually spacious piazzas, 
whose coolness causes them to be frequently used as 
dining- and sitting-rooms, the sun being kept out by 
curtains of canvas lowered from the roof. Nearly 
always the houses are of one story, and every provi- 



122 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

sion is made to insure coolness. There is a large hall, 
on whose sides are suites of bed-chambers and sitting- 
rooms, while in the rear is the court-yard, bounded on 
one side by rooms for servants, offices, etc., on the 
other, perhaps, by stables, a wall closing the rear. The 
court-yard in some cases is used for horses and as a 
playground for children; but more tasteful families 
convert it into a beautiful garden, planted with fruit 
trees and with the fragrant flowers of the island. 

In these mansions lazy comfort is the rule of the 
day for the family, easy-chairs being everywhere, in 
which one can pass the slow hours with a book or a 
chat, dropping off at suitable intervals into the land 
of dreams. A game of billiards or of cards can be 
had for those fond of these amusements, and a gallop 
around the plantation serves to break the monotony 
of the day. In this out-door exercise one may see 
numbers of mills in busy operation, fields of the 
waving cane spreading far before the eyes, and along 
the roads bordering hedges of tTie beautiful Pina 
Raton, or maya, which is the fence generally used in 
Cuba, varied rarely by the Mexican maguey, with its 
broad, saw-edged leaves. 

The pina bears some resemblance to the maguey, 
and grows high, with a thick, strong stem, the leaves 
being dentated and ending in sharp points. While the 
outer leaves are of a bright green, those within are of 
an intense vermilion color, the exquisitely tinted 
flowers nestling in their centre. Long miles of this 
bright-colored hedge give a peculiar and pleasing 
eflfect to a Cuban landscape. 

The ladies of the country mansion, we may say, 
usually prefer the cities to the plantations, and are 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 123 

apt to visit their country-homes at rare intervals only. 
A few weeks are passed there in the summer, and 
generally there is a lively party and a gay frolic at 
Christmas. When the proprietors are wealthy much 
style is observed during the presence of the ladies, — 
the servants being in showy livery, the service elegant, 
and ladies and gentlemen alike in full dress. But 
under ordinary circumstances show is dispensed with, 
and life is passed in the easiest and least troublesome 
way available, — the ladies indulging in the ease of the 
rocking-chair, the gentlemen looking after the in- 
terests of the estate, or spending their time in sports 
and amusements. 

The estate has, in addition to the mansion, the dwell- 
ings of the laborers, — often the rudest of huts, — a 
hospital for the sick, and various other buildings; 
most important of which, of course, is the sugar-mill, 
of which we must reserve a description for a later 
section. 



VIL AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS* 

COFFEE. 

Cuba, with its remarkably fertile soil, its abundant 
rainfall, and its tropical climate, possesses vast capa- 
bilities in agricultural production, though as yet only 
a small proportion of its soil has been cultivated, and 
that in a half-hearted way. With skill, energy, and 
enterprise, such as may be applied to this rich land in 
the near future under American influence, its produc- 
tive powers can be greatly increased, and it may be 
made one of the garden spots of the earth. 

We have already described its varied fruits and 
spoken of its minor farming operations. It remains 
to deal more at length with its three leading crops, 
coflfee, sugar, and tobacco, which have formed the 
foundation of the prosperity of the island and furnished 
the main elements of its commerce. One of these, 
coflfee, has become, however, largely a thing of the 
past; its culture having in great part vanished before 
the competition of Brazil, Java, and other countries 
which used improved machinery to diminish the cost 
of production, and of the more profitable sugar cul- 
ture of the island. The industry received a severe 
blow from the destructive hurricanes of 1843 ^^'^^ 1846, 
which brought ruin to many of the estates. These 
were followed by a long succession of wet years, under 
which the culture rapidly declined. As a result, 
coflfee was widely replaced by sugar-cane, and the in- 
124 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 125 

dustry has since then languished. Yet the mountain- 
sides and highlands of the eastern section of the island 
are especially suited to this crop; cofifee of excellent 
quality can be produced, and there seems no reason 
why this once important industry should not be re- 
vived. As it is, the insurrections have aided greatly 
in checking its progress, and to-day Cuba does not 
produce enough cofifee for its own consumption. 

The cultivation of the cofifee-plant was introduced 
from the neighboring islands early in the eighteenth 
century; though it was not until the end of the cen- 
tury, when the negro revolution in San Domingo 
drove many of the French planters from that island 
to Cuba, that it became active. Numbers of these 
refugees settled in the vicinity of Trinidad and San- 
tiago, where their industry converted long-neglected 
lands into productive plantations, and for many years 
afterwards cofifee was a very profitable crop. 

Its decline is largely due to persistence in antiquated 
methods of culture and to the exactions of the Spanish 
government, whose severe tarifif charges on exported 
cofifee, and internal taxes on that for local consump- 
tion, have discouraged planters and prevented the re- 
covery of the industry. Under new conditions and 
with skill and economy in its cultivation there seems 
no reason why coffee should not again become an im- 
portant crop. 

The cofifee-plant is an evergreen shrub, which bears 
oblong berries, green at first, then bright red, and 
finally purple. Each berry — of about the size of a 
cranberry or small cherry — contains two seeds, en- 
veloped in pulp; the seeds, when ripe, being semi- 
elliptical in shape and of a horny hardness. In plant- 



126 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

ing, holes are made four or five inches apart and a 
number of seeds placed in each. After the appearance 
of the shoot, which requires about forty days, the plant 
is kept carefully weeded, and allowed to grow for two 
years, at which time plants that are thirty inches high 
are cropped. Fruit first appears at the end of the third 
year, and becomes abundant at the end of the fourth. 
Under good conditions, the plants continue in bearing 
for thirty or more years, though as they grow older 
they yield well only every alternate year. Coffee is 
the poor man's crop. It does not need the extensive 
operations and costly machinery of sugar to be made 
profitable, and may be raised with profit on small 
estates. The mountain regions of the Santiago de 
Cuba province are specially adapted to it, though it 
extended over much of the island during its period 
of prosperity. This period ended with the rebellion of 
1868, which was largely confined to Santiago de Cuba, 
and put an end generally to industrial operations in 
that province. After the close of the insurrection, 
coflfee culture began again in many localities; but the 
1895 outbreak completely checked operations, and 
few, if any, coffee estates now remain. 

Aside from its utility, the coffee culture has a reason 
for existence in the remarkable beauty of the planta- 
tions, which the tropics present nothing to surpass. 
We cannot better show the truth of this statement 
than in the following extract from Bailouts "Due 
South:" 

" As the sugar plantation surpasses the coffee in 
wealth, so the coffee estate surpasses the sugar in 
every natural beauty and attractiveness. A coffee 
plantation, well and properly laid out, is one of the 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 127 

most beautiful gardens that can well be conceived of, 
in its variety and loveliness baffling description. An 
estate devoted to this purpose usually covers a hun- 
dred acres, more or less, planted in regular squares of 
one acre or thereabouts, intersected by broad alleys 
lined with palms, mangoes, bananas, oranges, and 
other fruits; as the coffee, unlike the sugar-cane, re- 
quires partial protection from the ardor of the sun. 
Mingled with the trees are lemons, limes, pome- 
granates. Cape jasmines, and a species of wild helio- 
trope, fragrant as the morning. Occasionally, in the 
wide reach of the estate, there is seen a solitary, broad- 
spreading ceiba, in hermit-like isolation from other 
trees, but shading a fragrant undergrowth. 

" Conceive of this beautiful arrangement, and then 
of the whole when in flower; the coffee, with Its milk- 
white blossoms, so abundant that it seems as though 
a pure white cloud of snow had fallen there, and left 
the rest of the vegetation fresh and green. Inter- 
spersed in these fragrant alleys dividing the coffee- 
plants is the red of the Mexican rose, the flowering 
pomegranate, the yellow jasmine, and the large, gaudy 
flower of the penon, shrouding its parent stem in a 
cloak of scarlet. Here, too, are seen clusters of the 
graceful yellow flag, and many wild flowers, unknown 
by name, entwining their tender stems about the base 
of the fruit trees. In short, a coffee plantation is a 
perfect floral paradise, full of fragrance and repose." 

In addition to the plants named, rice, plantain, 
cacao, tamarind, and the cocoa-nut palm are planted 
on the coffee estate, adding at once to the beauty of 
the fields and the profit of the culture. Along the 
roadways leading from the dwelling-house through 



128 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the fields the royal palm and other attractive trees are 
grown in long, graceful rows, forming in time stately 
and charming avenues. 

The cofTee-plant begins to blossom in February, the 
blossoming continuing through most of the spring. 
This is the season when the fields display their greatest 
beauty; the green, waxy leaves, starred with their mul- 
titude of white blossoms, extending as far as the eye 
can reach, while above them tower the banana with 
its massive green cluster, the cacao with its red and 
yellow fruit, the rose-tinted pomegranate, the loftier 
cocoa-nut, with its heavy clusters of nuts, and other 
fruit-bearing plants, the whole presenting a vision of 
tropical plenty and luxuriance. 

The cofYee-berry begins to attain maturity in Sep- 
tember, and continues to ripen until November, all 
the hands on the estate, men, women, and children, 
now taking part in the picking, in which each has a 
daily task to perform. About a quarter of a pound per 
bush is the average yield, half a pound being a large 
yield. The bags, as fast as they are filled, are taken 
on mule-back to the cofifee-house, where the overseer 
measures the fruit sent in by each hand to see if the 
allotted share of work has been performed. 

In the process of preparing for market, the pulping- 
mill is the principal piece of machinery. This consists 
of a circular canal, with ribbed sides, round which 
rolls a large wooden wheel, worked by steam- or 
water-power. The berries are placed in the canal and 
the wheel is rolled over them, for the purpose of break- 
ing and loosening the rind. The coffee-house, in 
which this is done, is usually a large frame or stone 
building. 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 129 

The berries are next placed in a large, dry, stone 
basin, where they remain for twelve hours, in order 
that the pulp enclosing the seeds may ferment. Water 
is then let in, and this substance — a slimy, mucous 
gum — is washed away. The next process is that of 
drying. The berries are spread on the sccadores, or 
drying terraces, and left to dry in the sun; the process 
requiring from seven to ten days if the weather con- 
tinues dry. The secadores are quadrangular stone 
basins, fifty or sixty feet long by twenty or thirty wide, 
arranged in terraces on a hill-side, numbering perhaps 
a dozen in all. They stand about three feet high, and 
are enclosed by a low stone coping, their plastered 
floors sloping from centre to sides, that the water may 
drain off in case of rain. 

Should rain threaten, the berries are hastily raked 
up into a large heap in the centre and covered by a 
conical shield of thatch or palm leaves, which sheds 
the water. The same is done at night as a protection 
from the dew. 

When fully dried, each berry is enclosed by a dry 
and dark-colored pellicle. After the whole crop is 
dried the berries are placed again in the pulplng-mill, 
whose heavy wheel now cracks the dry skin, the two 
grains of coffee — the seeds of the plant — being set free. 
A fanning-mill, like that used by our own farmers, is 
then brought into use to dispose of the chaff-like skins. 
Now, for a third time, the grains are put into the pulp- 
ing-mill, this time to color them, — the color of coffee 
as we get it not being that given by nature. Lamp- 
black is added, to the amount of half an ounce to a 
thousand pounds of grains; or other substances, such 
as soapstone and white lead, may be used, if a different 

9 



I30 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

shade of color is required. This process is called 
polishing. 

The sorting process follows, the coffee grains being 
poured through a hopper into a circular sieve, made 
into several compartments of different sized wire- 
mesh. As this revolves, the grain runs slowly from 
end to end of the sieve, being assorted in size as it 
falls through the successively smaller meshes. 

Three grades of coffee are thus produced, the most 
prized being the small round grain, called el caracolillo, 
which resembles the Mocha coffee of Arabia in ap- 
pearance. While not better in flavor than the other 
grades, it is more easily and thoroughly roasted and 
looks better, so that it brings a dollar or two extra per 
bag. The second grade is called el primer, or lavado. 
This is the principal yield, being the large, full-grown 
berry, the former being a stunted product. The third 
grade forms the refuse coffee, which is used upon the 
place or sold at a low price for local consumption. 

The coffee finally passes through a careful hand- 
sorting to free it from dirt, pebbles, and decayed ber- 
ries, this being done on a long table by negro women. 
The caracolillo grains are very carefully gone over by 
a skilled hand. The product, now ready for market, 
is packed in strong canvas bags, holding about 107 
pounds each, and transported to the sea-shore on 
mule- or horse-back; long lines of animals, carrying 
two bags each, the head of each tied to the tail of the 
one in front, winding down the hill-sides with their 
valuable freight. 

The cafetales yielding the finest fruit have been those 
of the Sierra Maestra Mountain region, the Vuelta 
Abajo district, and the Alquizar and San Marcos 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 131 

localities. The culture was continued actively in 
the specially favorable Guantanamo mountain district 
when it was rapidly on the decline elsewhere. 

Of the other products of the coffee estates the cacao 
comes next in importance to the coffee. The tree 
bearing this fruit has something of the size and ap- 
pearance of a dwarf pear-tree, growing as high as six 
or eight feet. The fruit is a large capsule, with the 
singular habit of growing directly on the trunk and 
the thick branches, the lower capsules even touching 
the ground. The capsule is well filled with beans, 
usually about twenty-five to each, surrounded by a 
sweet pulp of pleasant flavor. In preparing chocolate, 
the seeds are roasted, crushed, and ground to powder. 
Chocolate is much used in Cuba as a beverage, and 
large quantities are manufactured into bon-bons, the 
favorite confection of Cuban ladies. 

The plantanOj or plantain, forrhs the bread of Cuba, 
being eaten roasted by the working-people at almost 
every meal. There are numerous varieties of this 
plant, the favorite being the banana, whose palatable 
fruit is considered the result of long-continued careful 
cultivation. Another important tree, growing every- 
where in Cuba, from the mountains to the sea-coast, 
is the cocoa, whose fruit and wood alike are of the 
greatest value and utility. There is no drink more 
wholesome and refreshing than the milk of the fresh 
plucked cocoa-nut; while a delicious preserve is made 
from the pulp of the green fruit. From the juice of 
the stem the natives make a kind of wine; the fruit 
yields them their cups, lamps, and oil, and the tree 
furnishes thatch, brooms, baskets, and other house- 
hold necessities. 



132 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

TOBACCO. 

Cuba possesses three grades of soil, each suited to 
one of its three special crops. The richest soil is black 
in color, and is best adapted to the culture of the sugar- 
cane, its fertility being so great that artificial fertilizers 
are rarely needed. The red soil, deriving its color 
from oxide of iron, is of a lower grade of fertility, and 
in this the coffee plantations are usually established. 
Inferior to both of these is the mulatto-colored soil, 
the one preferred by the tobacco planters, who, how- 
ever, often mix other soils with it to increase its fer- 
tility. Tobacco, as is well known, is exhaustive to 
land, and the soil needs to be carefully chosen and 
strengthened; but the cultivation demands less care 
than in the case of coffee, and no expensive machinery 
is required as in the sugar production, while the fine 
quality of Cuban tobacco insures it a ready market at 
good prices. It is, therefore, largely grown. 

The use of tobacco was first observed in Cuba; 
Columbus, in his second voyage, seeing the natives 
smoking it, rolled in a leaf somewhat like the modern 
cigar. '* It is said that in this way they do not feel 
fatigue. These tubes, or whatever we may call them, 
they call tabacos." The Indian name for the plant and' 
leaf was cohiba, but the name of the Indian cigar has 
taken its place. 

The cultivation of the tobacco-plant began in the 
vicinity of Havana about 1580, but the famous Vuelta 
Abajo leaf was not heard of before 1790. The culture 
has increased with considerable rapidity and has ex- 
tended to all sections of the island. In 1827 the to- 
bacco farms numbered 5534, in 1846 more than 9000, 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 133 

and in 1862 about 11,000. In 1894 the number was 
given as 8875. 

The Vuelta Abajo region, comprising the western 
section of the island, yields the finest grade of leaf; 
but this only within a limited district, of about eighty 
miles in length by twenty in width. This lies between 
the mountain ridge and the southern coast, in the dis- 
trict surrounding the city of Pinar del Rio. The 
widely esteemed quality of the tobacco grown in this 
region is probably due to some peculiar element of the 
soil, and perhaps as greatly to the physical conditions 
of the country. Along the northern border of the 
district, on which is grown the best tobacco, rises the 
high Sierra de los Organos, down whose southward 
slopes the frequent rains give rise to numerous 
streams, while the surrounding heated waters of the 
Gulf Stream yield this region a climate peculiarly its 
own. Elsewhere the tobacco varies in quality, being 
harsh and strong in some districts, while in others leaf 
of great excellence is produced. 

The restrictions and exactions with which the to- 
bacco industry was long surrounded interfered greatly 
with its prosperity. Up to 1791 it was controlled by 
a monopoly called the " Commercial Company of Ha- 
vana," and subsequently by the " Factoria de To- 
bacco," whose management was such that only the 
poorer classes of the population engaged in the cul- 
ture, the " Factoria" advancing funds for this purpose. 
After this monopoly was suppressed, the tobacco cul- 
ture had to contend with the more profitable coffee 
and sugar industries. Recently it has been seriously 
affected by the insurrection, Maceo's raid into Pinar 
del Rio having proved highly detrimental to it. 



134 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The tobacco farms, vegas in Cuban parlance, are 
generally situated on the moist margins of rivers or in 
other low and damp localities, and are usually small, 
ten acres or more in size, while about as much space 
is devoted to the growth of bananas and other food 
plants. These farms are scattered about wherever the 
soil is richest, the intervening land remaining uncul- 
tivated. 

The plant, which is not allowed to attain a height of 
more than six to nine feet, bears oblong, pointed 
leaves, dark green in color when young, changing to 
a yellowish green when mature. It has a strong ap- 
petite for the mineral constituents of the soil, draining 
the ground of its nourishing properties and needing 
constant fertilization. 

The tobacco seed is sown in nurseries, from which 
the young plants are taken in October and November, 
when three inches high, to bed out in the fields, being 
planted in furrows two feet apart. They reach their 
full size in three months, during which the utmost 
vigilance is needed to guard them against the attacks 
of destructive insects, which include the green tobacco 
caterpillar and several others. These enemies need 
to be fought day and night, the planters, at the open- 
ing of the buds, often seeking their foes with lights 
all night long. Ploughing is also necessary, to keep 
the furrows clear of weeds. 

When the large leaves, generally ten in number, 
have grown, all the small ones are picked oflf; and the 
flower-bud at the top of the plant is also nipped oflf 
when it appears, so that all the strength may be thrown 
into the selected leaves. Suckers sprout out, and these 
also must be removed. As a result, the strength of 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 135 

the whole plant is thrown into the leaves, which ex- 
pand under the genial sunshine, — those of the female 
plant being the largest and the best adapted for the 
wrappers of cigars. 

The leaf is bright green in color until the picking 
season, when it begins to turn yellow and spotted. In 
gathering, the stalk is cut into short sections, with two 
leaves on each. This is for convenience in hanging 
them over the poles in the drying-house, a leaf de- 
pending on each side of the pole. These houses are 
large, open structures, thatched with palm-leaves, and 
supplied with rows of poles one above another, upon 
which the leaves are left about five weeks. When the 
curing process is completed, the leaves are tied into 
bundles of about 100 each, which are gathered into 
bales, usually of eighty bundles, and wrapped in palm 
leaves. They are now ready for conveyance to the 
Havana cigar factories or for transportation. 

A tobacco plantation has for buildings, in addition 
to the drying-house, a dwelling, some cattle-sheds, and 
a few rude huts for the laborers, of whom the largest 
farms employ about twenty or thirty. Whites as well 
as negroes are employed in this work. It is estimated 
that about 80,000 persons are engaged in the tobacco 
culture in Cuba, the annual crop averaging about 
560,000 bales of no pounds each. 

Tobacco, while secondary to sugar as a crop, is far 
more profitable in respect to acreage, and has the 
advantage of not needing large capital for its produc- 
tion. Its cultivation is by no means confined to the 
special region mentioned, but extends throughout 
Pinar del Rio, while about half the annual crop is 
grown in the Vuelta Arriba district. It deteriorates 



136 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

in quality, however, outside of the special area named; 
though it is claimed for the valley of Manicaragua, in 
the south central part of Santa Clara province, that '* it 
produces tobacco possessed of all the qualities of 
aroma, combustibility, elasticity, and fineness of tex- 
ture equal to that of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco." The 
soil is said to be almost identical with that of Pinar 

del Rio. 

SUGAR. 

The cultivation of the sugar-cane, the most im- 
portant of the agricultural productions of Cuba, began 
more than three centuries ago. It is said that the plant 
was first introduced in 1530, in or near Havana, but 
that its first profitable cultivation began at Regla, on 
Havana Bay, about 1595. The culture now extends 
widely over the island, occupying the broad plains be- 
tween the mountains and the sea and the fertile valleys 
between the lateral mountain spurs, a rich and well- 
drained but moist soil being required. Many of the 
estates embrace several thousand acres ; the total out- 
crop of any other of the West India Islands not sur- 
passing that of three or four of the largest Cuban 
estates, while Demerara alone equals Cuba in the use 
of improved methods of manufacture. Of the other 
cane-sugar countries of the world, Java alone comes 
within fifty per cent, of the product of Cuba in normal 
times. Yet the facilities of the island in this direction 
are far from exhausted; and it is said that if all the 
land suitable for cane growth were cultivated Cuba 
might supply the whole western hemisphere with 
sugar. 

Several varieties of cane are grown in Cuba, the 
oldest known being the criolla, or native cane, a thin, 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 137 

poor, and not very juicy species. The favorite cane 
is the Otaheite, introduced in 1795, which is large, 
thick, and rich in juice. Still more recently the Cris- 
tallina was introduced, and is preferred by many 
planters to the Otaheite. The cane varies in color, 
length of joint, height, and other particulars, not only 
with different varieties, but also with the character of 
soil and mode of culture. Its height, while averaging 
six or seven feet, sometimes reaches twenty. The 
sugar-cane bears a close resemblance in appearance 
to Indian corn, being divided, like it, by annular joints 
into short lengths, long, narrow leaves sprouting from 
each joint, of which the lower ones drop of¥ when the 
cane is near maturity. The outer part of the cane is 
hard and brittle, while the inner is a soft pith which 
contains the sweet juice. This is very nutritious, and 
the negroes are particularly fond of it. 

In the culture of the cane slips or cuttings are 
planted, consisting of the top and two or three of the 
upper joints. These are laid longitudinally in holes 
and covered with an inch or two of earth. They sprout 
from the joints, the sprouts appearing in about a 
fortnight after planting. As they grow, more earth 
is gradually thrown into the hole until it is completely 
filled up. 

The planting takes place during the rainy season, 
and the cutting begins after Christmas, and is in some 
cases continued up to May. When fully ripe, the 
cane is of a light golden-yellow color, streaked here and 
there with red, the top dark green with long, narrow, 
drooping leaves, from whose centre shoots up a silvery 
stem two feet high, fringed at top with a plume of 
delicate lilac hue. The outer skin now becomes dry, 



138 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

smooth, and brittle; the cane heavy, the pith of a dark 
gray, incHning to brown, and the juice sweet and 
ghitinous. A plantation, once laid out, will continue 
for years by a simple process of renewal, several crops 
being raised in succession from the same roots. Usu- 
ally about one-third of the ground is replanted an- 
nually. The sugar estate lacks the natural beauty of 
the cofifee plantation, the cane not needing shade, and 
extending, like our western corn-fields, over broad 
levels of ground. 

Palms and graceful fruit trees, however, are planted 
around the houses of the owner and overseer, yielding 
stretches of inviting shade; while the negro cabins are 
surrounded by plantain and mango trees, and patches 
of sweet potatoes and yams. Several hundred blacks 
are employed on the larger plantations, reaching as 
many as 700 in some instances, though every introduc- 
tion of improved machinery reduces the number re- 
quired. In addition, a considerable number of oxen, 
horses, and mules are necessary, and the running ex- 
penses of a large estate are very heavy. The rate of 
profit, however, has long been large, though it has 
suffered a serious decline through the recent competi- 
tion with state-protected beet-root sugar. About 
twenty years ago there began a strong movement to- 
wards the centralization of estates, planters perceiving 
the value of operating on a large scale. The effect, 
however, of the destruction of cane and machinery 
during the recent insurrection has been very serious, 
if not absolutely ruinous to many of the planters. 

The sugar-fields are divided into squares of three or 
four acres each, with roadways between for the con- 
venience of teams in gathering. Tramways have been 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 139 

laid on some of the large estates, leading to the doors 
of the grinding-mills. When the cane is ripe for cut- 
ting, a sugar estate becomes a scene of the greatest 
activity. The mill is made ready to devour the pro- 
duct with all possible rapidity, and the hands — men, 
v^omen, and children — are marshalled in the fields, 
each armed with a machete, the peculiar Cuban knife. 
They spread out over the fields and the cutting begins, 
a first cut taking off the long leaves and the top of the 
cane, useless except as food for cattle, a second near 
the root felling the cane. It is left where it falls to be 
gathered up by the carters, who follow the cutters with 
their slow-moving carts. These, as they are filled, 
drive to the mill, emptying their loads under a long 
shed near the crusher. 

Faster than the mill can grind the cane accumulates, 
a huge heap being made by night. But as the mill 
runs unceasingly night and day, the sheds are nearly 
or quite emptied before morning, and the hands are 
roused at an early hour and sent to the fields, that the 
greedy maw of the mill may not grow hungry. During 
the grinding season, in fact, the hands are obliged to 
work nearly twenty hours out of the twenty-four. 
They make up for this severe labor, however, during 
the remainder of the year, when their tasks are com- 
paratively light. 

The sugar-mill is the central point of the whole 
process, and the one whose operations demand the 
most intelligence and care. It is usually very large, 
consisting of an immense roof, supported by posts and 
pillars, with brick pavement and stone stairways. The 
sides are left open for the free movement of air, so 
that virtually it is but a great shed. It contains the 



I40 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

engine-house, with all the machinery for grinding and 
boiling, and the purging and drying Houses. Some 
small estates may still employ ox-power for grinding 
the cane, but in nearly all cases powerful steam-engines 
are used, attended usually by American engineers. 
The engineer, in fact, is the most important man upon 
the place, and must be able not only to keep the 
engine in operation, but to repair any injuries to the 
machinery that may take place. This is work that 
requires an intelligence and mechanical skill which 
none need look for in Spaniard, Cuban, or negro, 
and for which high salaries are paid, while the engi- 
neer is free to spend six months of the year in " the 
States." 

The cane is thrown from the shed on an endless 
chain, which carries and feeds it into the strong jaws 
of the crusher. This consists usually of three huge 
rollers of solid iron, two beneath and one above, be- 
tween which the cane passes in a constant stream, 
being squeezed to the thickness of half an inch be- 
tween the first two rollers and to a still smaller size 
between the second pair. The yield of juice is from 
sixty to sixty-five per cent., or as much as seventy 
where hydraulic pressure is used. In the latest mills 
five or more rollers are employed, and the yield of 
juice is comparatively greater. The refuse cane is 
delivered into a wooden trough, whence it is taken 
to serve as fuel under the boilers. In the more recent 
diffusion process, applied in some localities, nearly 
the whole of the juice is extracted. 

The juice as expressed is a turbid, frothy liquid of 
yellowish green color, which the hot climate renders 
liable to quick fermentation. To prevent this it is 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 141 

carried to the clarifiers without delay, being filtered 
or skimmed on the way to remove all particles of pulp 
and other solid matter. The clarifiers are large kettles 
heated by steam to a temperature near that of boiling. 
Milk of lime is added to neutralize the acid constitu- 
ents of the juice, and the impurities rise to the surface 
as a thick scum, from which the clear liquid below is 
drawn off. The clarified juice is next filtered through 
vats nearly filled with bone-black, and thence carried 
by troughs to storage-tanks. 

Evaporation is the next process. This is performed 
in vacuum-pans, few planters now employing the old 
and wasteful open-pan process. The vacuum-pan is 
an air-tight copper cylindrical vessel, from six to 
seven feet in diameter, and convex or dome-shaped at 
top and bottom. It has a double bottom, forming a 
cavity into which steam is introduced, and also a 
coiled steam-pipe in the chamber, resting upon the 
upper bottom. In using the pan an air-pump is em- 
ployed to exhaust the air from the cylinder, in order 
that the contents may boil at a low temperature. 
Three to five of these pans are used, the juice growing 
thicker in each. The final one of the series is called a 
" strike-pan." 

In the process of evaporation the clarified juice is 
pumped into the first pan, where the boiling process 
reduces it to a thin syrup. Thence it goes to the sec- 
ond pan. In which it becomes a thick syrup. If three 
pans are used the liquid Is now conducted into syrup 
clarifiers, in which the Impurities are skimmed off, 
and is again filtered through bone-black. A third 
boiling takes place in the strike-pan, from which It Is 
drawn Into the strike-heater, a double-bottomed 



142 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

kettle kept warm by steam and in which the crystal- 
lization of the sugar takes place. 

The process is completed in the purging-hous( 
This is a large building, two stories in height; the 
upper floor being simply an open framework with nu- 
merous rows of apertures. In these are set the hor- 
mas, or moulds, funnel-shaped cylinders which receive 
the crystallized sugar and from which the molasses 
drains ofif into troughs beneath. A layer of moist 
earth or clay is placed on the top of these receptacles, 
whose moisture drains through and aids in carrying 
off the coloring matter. The result is that the cake 
of crystallized sugar presents a composite appear- 
ance, — pure white at top, discolored in its central 
section, and dark colored at bottom. The molasses, 
carried by troughs to hogsheads below, is afterwards 
reboiled, and a common grade of sugar made from 
it. In some cases the "claying" process is not em- 
ployed, and the sugar, known as muscovado, is of a 
rich brown color throughout. This yields a better 
quality of molasses, sweeter in taste, while the more 
uniform grade of the sugar produced makes it prefer- 
able to refiners. 

The remaining processes may be briefly described. 
The drained sugar is exposed in the drying-house to 
the air and the sun, the forms from the hormas being 
broken up so that it may be thoroughly dried. It is 
then taken to the packing-room and poured into the 
empty packing-boxes, in which the loose sugar is 
beaten down with heavy packing-sticks, the negroes 
keeping time with hands and voices. The boxes, 
holding 400 pounds each, are finally closed, strapped 
with raw hide, and shipped to market. The process 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 143 

of sugar-making, of course, varies somewhat 05 dif- 
ferent estates, but the same general methods are in 
use on all. 

The total production of sugar in Cuba averages, in 
normal times, about 1,000,000 tons. In 1895 the 
product was i ,004,264 tons, of which more than three- 
fourths were consumed in the United States. In the 
following year it fell off, in consequence of the in- 
surrection, to 225,221 tons, and in 1897 and 1898 
suflfered a still greater diminution. Under the coming 
conditions in Cuba this important industry may per- 
haps be susceptible of a great development, its decline 
being not alone due to the beet-sugar competition, but 
to the severe restrictions of Spanish financial methods. 
With an improved governmental system, the industry 
may regain its old prosperity. 

While the sugar-house has been supplied with the 
best modern machinery and the most economical ap- 
pliances, and many miles of railway have been laid to 
expedite the bringing in the cane from the fields and 
convey the sugar to market, the field cultivation re- 
mains in many respects antiquated. The use of fer- 
tilizers has scarcely been introduced; there are no 
irrigation works of any account; the wooden plough 
is still often used, and on only a few estates is the 
ground properly cleaned or sul^ciently prepared for 
the new crop. Much might be saved, also, through 
the use of cane-cutting machines, if such could be 
devised; and, in short, much needs to be done in the 
way of economy and skilful management at the field 
end of the process. 



144 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 



LIVE-STOCK. 

In addition to the cultivated area of Cuba, a large 
section is devoted to grazing, there being fully 
9,000,000 acres of fertile plains, natural pasture lands. 
These, which extend through all parts of the island, 
but specially exist in its eastern half, have long been 
used in the grazing of cattle and horses, which are 
raised in large numbers. The pasture lands north of 
Trinidad are so well adapted to horses that it was 
once a common saying on the island that all the 
beggars of Trinidad rode on horseback. In the vi- 
cinity of Santo Espiritu and extending eastward o\^er 
Camaguey to Santiago de Cuba province great herds 
of cattle have been kept, the city of Puerto Principe 
being a central point in a very extensive grazing dis- 
trict. 

In these wide cattle ranges water is usually abun- 
dant, Cuba being notable for its multitude of springs 
and its numerous streams of the purest water. In 
some localities, however, surface water is deficient, 
and here deep wells are dug, sometimes as much as 
300 feet in depth. From these the water is raised in 
buckets carried on endless belts over large wheels, 
animal power being employed in the work. 

The Cuban cattle farms are of two kinds. One of 
these is the open range, where the cattle are left free, 
getting water from the running brooks, and only 
looked after at intervals by the Cuban equivalent of 
the cowboy. The potrero, or corral, the usual form, is 
an enclosed space, encircled by stone walls, in which 
the cattle are more carefully attended to. The cattle 
business has been a profitable one, though no care was 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 145 

given to fattening for market, the beeves being sold 
just as they came from the ranges. The resuU is that 
good beef in Cuba is a very rare article. 

The immense herds of cattle, spread over vast plains, 
here and there divided by stone walls, and shaded at 
points by groves of palm and cocoa-nut trees, formed 
in past years a spectacle well worth seeing. The num- 
ber of potreros in 1827 was over 3000; twenty years 
after they had increased to nearly 4500, and in 1862 
to over 6000. In 1894 there seemed a decline, the 
estimate being 4300; but this reduction in numbers 
was doubtless accompanied by increase in size. At 
present there are virtually none, or at least they are 
unstocked, the herds having been nearly annihilated 
during the insurrection. 

In addition to its excellent facilities for raising 
cattle, Cuba presents the best opportunities for the 
raising of hogs, to which no attention is needed, the 
seeds of the palm tree furnishing them with an abun- 
dance of fattening food. Yet, in spite of these facili- 
ties, neither cattle nor hogs have been raised in suffi- 
cient numbers for the home supply, and for many 
years past hog products from the United States and 
dried beef from the Argentine Republic have been 
among the largest items of importation. The Cuban 
beef is largely cured by drying it, salted, in the sun. 
This, known as "jerked beef," will keep for several 
weeks, and is a common article on the Cuban table. 

Some of the finest of the Cuban horses are raised 
around Puerto Principe. The horse of Cuba, a de- 
velopment of the early Spanish stock, has become a 
special breed under the influence of the new climatic 
conditions surrounding it. It is of small size, with a 

10 



146 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

short, stout body, neatly-shaped Hmbs, intelligent eyes, 
and a peculiar gait which renders it exceedingly easy 
as a saddle-horse. It has a thick neck and heavy 
mane and tail, and in its unbroken state presents a 
very rough and shaggy appearance. 

No horses are easier to ride, the gait being some- 
thing like that of our pacing horses, though much 
more easy; and the greatest novice in horsemanship 
need not hesitate to mount a well-broken Cuban horse. 
So smooth is the pace that on some horses what is 
called el paso guatrapco can be performed, the move- 
ment being so gentle that the rider can carry a full 
glass of water at rapid speed without spilling. The 
endurance of the Cuban horse is also remarkable, a 
journey of from forty-five to sixty miles being per- 
formed day after day without evidence of fatigue, 
while on forced journeys seventy to eighty miles are 
not unusual. It is also very gentle in temper, a vicious 
animal being rare. In fact, the horse is made almost 
one of the family by the Cuban owner, being kept in 
the patio in town houses, and almost in the house 
itself by the country people. It was to the intelli- 
gence, docility, and endurance of their horses that the 
Cuban insurgents owed much of their success during 
the recent insurrection. 

The latest available statement of the number of do- 
mestic animals in Cuba dates back to 1891, when the 
totals were as follows: Cattle, 2,485,768; horses, 
531,416; mules, 43-309; pigs, 570.194; and sheep, 
78,484. In the raising of these Santa Clara was the 
most prolific province, and Santiago de Cuba next in 
order so far as horses and cattle were concerned. 
These animals to-day have practically disappeared, 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 147 

the three years of insurrection, during which Cubans 
and Spaniards alike freely slaughtered them for food, 
having nearly exhausted the supply. Yet the pastures 
remain, and there is nothing to prevent a rapid re- 
stocking of the island. 

Of the animals raised in Cuba, poultry call for some 
attention, since these are kept in large numbers, not 
only in the country but by many families in the city, 
and a large proportion of the people never eat any 
other meat than poultry and wild game. There is a 
small wild pigeon which is largely snared and shot 
for table use, and ducks and other water-fowl abound. 
The domestic fowl is sold at a cheap rate, but is small 
and poor, usually very tough, from being killed and 
eaten within the same hour. 

Bees flourish in Cuba, and much honey and wax 
are used and exported. The honey varies greatly in 
quality, the best being that produced on the cultivated 
uplands. In the vicinity of the sugar plantations the 
bees feed about the mills; and here they are said to 
prefer the by-product of rum to the sugar and syrup, 
and often become so intoxicated as to neglect their 
usual industry. 

Along some portions of the coast turtle and sponge 
fishing are active industries. Large numbers of 
turtles are taken annually on the coast opposite the 
Isle of Pines, and these yield tortoise-shell of the best 
quality. The coast opposite the old Bahama channel 
is also frequented by these animals, which come ashore 
to deposit their eggs, and are captured by turning 
them on their backs, they being unable to regain their 
normal position. The meat is eaten in the vicinity 
and the shell carefully prepared for export. Sponges 



148 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

are also taken in large quantities, the fisheries at Cai- 
barien yielding an annual quantity selling at from 
$300,000 to $400,000, while those at Batabano 
yield about $600,000 annually. The work is crudely 
performed, the boats being manned by matriculados, 
or former seamen of the Spanish navy. There are no 
reef sponges on the Cuban coast, but the finer varieties 
of sheep's wool and velvet, with some coarser grades, 
are common. 

As regards the fishing industry, we have already 
spoken of the great variety of edible fish sold in the 
Cuban markets. They are caught in the surrounding 
waters and in those of the Bahama Islands, and some 
of the streams are abundantly supplied; so that it is 
rare to sit down to a meal in Cuba without fish. The 
oysters have the property of growing on trees, that 
is, they cling to the twigs of the mangroves. They 
are quite small and have the coppery taste of the 
European oyster. 



VIIL MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 

CIGARS. 

If it be asked, What are the manufactures of Cuba? 
it might ahnost be answered there are none. Tropical 
countries nowhere take kindly to the arts of manu- 
facture. Their inhabitants occupy themselves mainly 
in stimulating the productive energies of nature, con- 
tent to exchange the products of the earth for the 
manufactured articles of the temperate zones. Only 
in one manufacture is any energy displayed in Cuba, 
that of converting the tobacco of the country into 
cigars and cigarettes to supply the great and in- 
creasing demand of Cuba and the world. As for the 
Cuban, he half subsists on smoke; the weed is his com- 
panion by day and night, and whatever else is neg- 
lected his craving for the narcotic efifects of this 
favorite product of the island soil must be satisfied. 

There are no less than 120 cigar factories in Ha- 
vana of considerable importance and several hundred 
smaller concerns, many of the large ones being very 
extensive and employing over 400 workmen each, so 
that a considerable portion of the working class of 
the city is thus engaged. Some of the factories are 
large and handsome buildings, and contain within 
themselves all the requisites for the handling of their 
product, including printing-presses for the supply of 
labels, circulars, and the designs for cigarette paper, 

149 



I50 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

a carpenter shop in which the packing-boxes and 
barrels are made, and other departments, all of which 
are fitted with the most improved machines. 

Though these establishments were nearly all 
founded by Spaniards, some of the more important 
of them have fallen into the hands of British and 
German capitalists, the list of which is said to have 
been added to since the beginning of the recent war. 
Of the concerns thus controlled by foreign capital the 
most important is the Partagas, whose product has 
a world-wide reputation. This is now in the hands 
of a London company, with a capital of about $1,500,- 
000, and has a daily output of about 35,000 cigars 
and 2,000,000 cigarettes. In addition to its factories 
in Havana, it owns about 18,000 acres of the best 
Vuelta Abajo tobacco land. Another corporation 
known throughout the world is that of Gustav Bock, 
who recently interested British capital in his enter- 
prise; a company being formed which purchased or 
leased some ten of the larger establishments of the 
city. It produces an enormous quantity of goods. 
A prominent German concern, the H. Upmann Com- 
pany, is also extensive in its operations; and there are 
numerous smaller German and French establishments 
in the city. 

In addition to the enormous consumption in the 
island there is a large export trade, — the cigars ex- 
ported in 1896 numbering 185,914,000. It must not 
be imagined, however, that these are all of a high 
grade, since not only does the product of Cuban soil 
differ considerably in quality, but much tobacco of 
foreign growth is imported and rolled into so-called 
Cuban cigars. In the streets of Havana itself one 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 151 

may find himself buying and smoking a cigar whose 
visible leaf evidently grew in Northern soil. 

Though tobacco in its various manufactured forms 
constitutes the chief article of Cuban manufacture, 
there is some activity in other directions. Carriage- 
making, for instance, is somewhat extensively carried 
on, to supply the large number of victorias and other 
vehicles in use. The finer carriages are usually 
brought from the United States. The business of the 
harness-maker is similarly active. Other articles of 
Cuban production include shoes, soap, candles, per- 
fumery, sweetmeats, beer, leather, etc., but in none of 
these directions is any special activity displayed. 

COMMERCE. 

A glance at the harbor of Havana, in years of peace 
and prosperity, yields abundant indication of the ac- 
tivity of Cuban commerce, a large portion of which 
passes through this port. On entering the harbor 
one finds himself in a busy scene, ships of all nations 
lying at the wharves or gliding in and out of the bay, 
while a fleet of small boats darts swiftly about, carry- 
ing passengers or otherwise engaged. 

Havana, while the most active, is but one of the 
many ports with which commerce is conducted, no 
other island or coast of the world surpassing Cuba in 
its abundance of fine harbors, most of which are purse- 
shaped inlets in the rocky coast, with narrow passages 
through the reef rock. But admirable as they are in 
situation, little effort to improve them has been made, 
and even the harbor of Havana has been allowed to 
fill up with the refuse of the town. 

In 1894 the tonnage of Havana and eight other 



152 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

ports amounted to 3,538,539, carried in 3181 vessels. 
From Havana about 1200 vessels, steam and sail, clear 
annually for foreign ports; the trade with the United 
States alone amounting to about 1,000,000 tons an- 
nually. There has been, however, very little com- 
merce with the other West Indian islands, or with 
the Spanish-American countries except Mexico. It 
is said that even the Havana cigar is not to be found 
in any city of the Caribbean islands except those 
visited by European steamers which touch at Havana 
on their way to other ports. 

In seeking to state the commerce of the island, we 
find ourselves in something of a dilemma. During the 
past few years the insurrection, with its basic principle 
of destruction, has so greatly reduced the output that 
all figures applying to these years are misleading. If 
we go back to earUer years, we are obliged to depend 
upon Spanish statistics, which are far from reliable, 
and find ourselves in a maze of conflicting statements. 
And it must also be taken into consideration that these 
figures belong to a past age, and by no means indicate 
the commerce the island is likely to possess under its 
new conditions. There will very probably be a rapid 
and extensive development in business conditions, 
under which all the productive energies of Cuba must 
be greatly stimulated and its exports and imports 
largely augmented. With these remarks, we may give 
some of the details of Cuban commerce under the old 
regime. 

A British Foreign Office report for the year ending 
April, 1896, gives the value of Cuban exports as 
$94'395'536; imports, $66,166,754. Here there was 
an apparent balance of trade of more than $28,000,000 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 153 

in favor of the island; but this was more than con- 
sumed by the Spanish government, which exacted 
some $40,000,000 from the colony. Complete statis- 
tics of the trade with foreign countries are not to be 
had, but figures taken from United States consular 
reports show a striking discrimination against this 
country in favor of Spain and Great Britain. In 1896 
the United States received from Cuba goods to the 
value of $42,314,383, for which there was returned only 
$9,632,974. These figures are nearly reversed in the 
case of Spain, whose exports to Cuba were $33,474,- 
680, and imports from that island $9,681,120. The 
Cuban exports to Great Britain were $174,187; im- 
ports, $5,843,892; exports to Belgium, $208,304; im- 
ports, $1,089,239. France, on the contrary, resembled 
the United States, sending Cuba only $424,600 worth 
of goods, and receiving in return goods valued at 

$3,338,900- 

The great balance in favor of Spain was due to the 
colonial policy of that country, which had remained 
unchanged from the eighteenth century. All freedom 
of commerce with Cuba was vigorously checked by 
the aid of heavy discriminating duties in favor of 
Spain, which were never less than forty per cent., 
and usually much more. Only through the corrup- 
tion of Cuban custom-house officials had foreign 
countries any chance at all to compete with Spain, 
whose higher-priced and less serviceable goods were 
forced upon the Cubans against their will. A marked 
example of the state of affairs is to be seen in the fact 
that in sending flour from New York to Havana it 
has always been cheaper to send it first to Spain and 
have it reshipped from there than to send it direct. 



154 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE, 

This roundabout policy in favor of Spain will, of 
course, now be reversed, to the great benefit alike of 
American shippers and Cuban consumers. 

The exports from the United States to Cuba have 
long been largely food materials, — hog products 
coming first and flour second. As regards the latter, 
the true figures cannot be obtained, since probably 
twice as much flour was sent to Spain for reshipment 
as was sent to Cuba direct. With the new conditions 
there will doubtless be a large increase in these and 
others of the food products of the United States. 

The third material on the list of exports from this 
country was dressed lumber. In view of the vast 
woodland area of Cuba and the high economic value 
of many of its trees, this is not likely to continue, since 
wood-working machinery, with which Cuba can dress 
her own timber, may be sent instead. A similar 
change is likely to take place in other directions, the 
two countries working together in every instance in 
the way that may prove most advantageous. We give 
on pages 155 and 156 a tabulated statement of im- 
ports and exports to and from the United States in 
1893 and 1897, the former the largest year since 1874, 
while the great falling oflf in the latter year was mainly 
a result of the insurrection. 

The United States forms the great market for 
Cuban sugar, of which the local consumption is not 
more than 50,000 tons, while in 1894 this country took 
956,524 tons out of a total of 1,054,214 tons. The total 
amount received in the United States from all quar- 
ters during that year was 1.625,960 tons. The leading 
shipping ports for sugar are Havana, Matanzas, Car- 
denas, and Cienfuegos, which do not differ materially 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 155 

in their output. Sagua and Caibarien also ship largely, 
while Guantanamo, Manzanillo, and Santiago follow 
in succession. It may be said, in conclusion of this 
topic, that the cane-sugar yield of the world for 1894- 
95 was estimated at 3,125,000 tons; beet-sugar, 
4,975,000 tons; total, 8,100,000 tons. 

Tobacco, the second large product of Cuba, yields 
in an average year, as already stated, 560,000 bales, of 
about no pounds each, of which half is of Vuelta 
Abajo growth. Of this product about 340,000 bales 
are exported as leaf, and 220,000 bales are used by the 
Havana manufactories, the bulk of whose output is 
exported as cigars. 

Next in importance among Cuban exports to the 
United States come molasses and fruits, and at a lower 
level are cedar, lumber, and iron ore. Among the 
minor articles we may name mahogany, logwood, 
hides, wax, honey, cocoa-nuts, sponges, and cocoa-nut 
oil, while there is a considerable variety of products 
of which small quantities are received. 

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS FROM CUBA INTO THE UNITED 

STATES. 
Articlbs. 
Free of Duty : 1893. 1897. 

Fruits and nuts 1552,347,800 ^154,422 

Sugar 60,637,631 .... 

Molasses 1,081,034 5,448 

Lumber 1,071,123 63,670 

Dutiable : 

Tobacco, unmanufactured . . 8,940,058 2,306,067 

Tobacco, manufactured , . . 2,727,039 1,971,214 

Sugar 11,982,473 

Iron ore 641,943 475,281 

Total ;J577,446,628 ^$516,958,575 



156 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO 
CUBA. 

Articles. 1893. 1897. 

Hog products ^5,401,022 ^2,224,485 

Wheat flour 2,821,577 564,638 

Dressed lumber 1,095,928 286,387 

Coal 931,371 638,912 

Com 582,050 247,905 

Potatoes 554,153 331,553 

Mineral oil 5H,8o8 306,916 

Locomotives 418,776 20,638 

Builders' hardware 395,964 49,386 

Beans and peas 392,962 276,635 

Steel rails 326,654 14,650 

Boilers and parts of engines . . 322,384 35,578 

Wire 321,120 35,905 

Carriages and street cars . . . 316,045 3,755 

Passenger and freight cars . . 271,571 9,202 

Saws and tools 243,544 34,686 

Household furniture .... 217,126 34,288 

Leather goods 191,394 39,753 

Stationary engines 130,652 1,189 

Total j55i5,449,ioi ^5,156,461 



FINANCES. 

The total value of agricultural property in Cuba, 
with its appurtenances, was estimated in 1862 at $380,- 
554,527, yielding a net income of ten per cent. The 
appurtenances included slaves, valued at something 
over $100,000,000. Since then, in consequence of the 
insurrection, foreign competition, and emancipation of 
the slaves, there has been a shrinkage in value. In 
1894 the total value of the plantations may have been 
$300,000,000. To-day it is considerably less. The 
revenue yielded by the island has varied at diflferent 
times and under different circumstances. During the 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 157 

insurrection of 1868-78 the financial burdens laid 
on the people were very severe, the average annual 
revenue exacted being $41,577,699. In the period be- 
tween 1878 and 1895 the revenue averaged $33,400,- 
000. This heavy exaction from a population of 1,600,- 
000, made up of customs duties and direct taxes, was 
not the whole the Cubans had to endure, since con- 
siderable sums were wrung from them by official fraud 
and forced levies, the island having the double task of 
feeding the Spanish treasury and enriching the horde 
of Spanish office-holders who filled every lucrative 
position in the land. 

The debt of Cuba — in great measure composed of 
moneys spent in seeking to keep the islanders in sub- 
jection — amounted in the summer of 1897 to the 
great total of $396,500,000. Since that date the war 
expenditures of Spain have been considerable, and the 
present debt is probably not less than $500,000,000, a 
sum surpassing the total value of the agricultural and 
industrial interests of the island, and which, if assessed 
against Cuba, would amount to about $350 per capita 
of the population, a far larger per capita charge than 
the debts of any of the nations of Europe. As, how- 
ever, the United States has refused to assume this 
debt as a charge on Cuba, and as the Cubans will cer- 
tainly refuse to accept it, since it was spent in efforts 
to subdue them, it must become a burden upon the 
already debt-ridden population of Spain. 

Cuba has never had a currency of its own, its mone- 
tary unit being the Spanish peso, or dollar, estimated 
at 92.6 cents in nominal value in United States cur- 
rency, — not the peseta, worth 19.3 cents, the unit in 
Spain. The circulation, however, is a varied one, con- 



158 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

sisting of Spanish, French, American, and Mexican 
coins, all of which pass current. Before 1892, a five- 
cent silver coin was the smallest in circulation, but 
since then smaller copper and bronze coins have been 
introduced. American and British gold and paper are 
at a premium above the Spanish gold, and consider- 
ably so above its silver, the result being a confusing 
one to visitors from the United States. The difference 
has been taken advantage of by astute dealers in the 
newly occupied cities, and a revision of the circulating 
medium has become indispensable. 

The Spanish one-centen, or twenty-five-peseta, gold 
cc'n, of $4.82 legal value, has been inflated by Spanish 
financial methods to $5.30 in Cuba, and the French 
louis, or twenty-franc piece, from $3.86 to $4.24. This 
premium cannot be maintained in competition with 
American gold, and an order has been issued by the 
United States treasury department reducing these 
coins to their legal value. As regards the silver coin- 
age, the Spanish peso, or silver dollar, has been reduced 
to sixty cents in circulating value, and the smaller 
coins in proportion, a change which is very likely to 
force these coins back to Spain, in view of their higher 
value there. This reduction in the value of silver is 
likely to cause some temporary difficulty with the 
laboring population, as the prevailing rate of wages 
has been one dollar for one day's work. It will not be 
easy to make the ignorant wage-earners comprehend 
the higher value of the new dollar. 

Cuba has long been inadequately provided with 
banking facilities, the whole island possessing but two 
chartered banks, whose head-quarters are in Havana 
while there are branches in the other large citie^. 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 159 

These are the Banco Espanol, which has the sole right 
of issuing circulating notes, and the Banco de Comer- 
cio, which has the practical control of the main rail- 
way system of the island. Both of these have at times 
suspended payment, and neither enjoys the fullest 
public confidence, while their modes of operation have 
not favored commercial activity. 

There is not a bank on the island in which money 
can be placed at interest, nor a single savings-bank 
for the convenience of artisans; and banking, as it is 
understood in the United States, does not appear to 
exist in Cuba. The nearest approach to it is made by 
a few large business houses, which do a legitimate 
private banking business, while the " note shaver" and 
the usurer exist, seriously to the injury of those to 
whom financial assistance is indispensable. Nothing 
is more needed in the island than a progressive and 
secure banking system, ready to loan money at reason- 
able rates of interest. Institutions of this kind are 
absolutely necessary if the island is to make any rapid 
recovery from its existing state of depression. 

THE FUTURE OUTLOOK. 

The Cuba of the past and the Cuba of the present 
and future are two unlike countries. Under the 
Spanish dominion, severe taxation, trade restrictions, 
official fraud and peculation, and lack of energy and 
enterprise ruled supreme. Under the fostering in- 
fluence of the United States, which may be looked 
upon as assured whatever the governmental relations 
of the island may be, these unjust exactions and im- 
pediments to industrial activity must largely or fully 
cease, and opportunities for enterprise be opened 



i6o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

which cannot fail to be of great advantage to the peo- 
ple of Cuba, and, reflectively, to those of the United 
States. Some of the probable directions of this future 
progress may be pointed out. 

Agriculturally, there are abundant opportunities. 
The coffee industry, to which the eastern end of the 
island is so excellently adapted, is likely to be profit- 
ably revived, its present depressed condition being by 
no means a necessity of the situation. Under equal 
conditions, the coffee of Cuba can safely enter into 
competition with that of Brazil and other countries, 
it only needing relief from official exaction and intel- 
ligent and economical cultivation to regain its former 
standing. 

The tobacco crop has suffered little and can be 
readily restored, while there is opportunity for a con- 
siderable increase of the quantity grown. It is stated 
that a syndicate of American capitalists has been 
formed with the purpose of controlling the whole of 
this industry, not only in the fields, but in the Havana 
manufactories, the latter with the co-operation of Gus- 
tav Bock, the well-known dealer in tobacco and cigars. 

The sugar culture has been ruined by the insurrec- 
tion, crop after crop of cane having been burned, and 
the buildings and machinery in many cases destroyed. 
Large capital will be necessary for its restoration, and 
this is one of the directions in which American capi- 
talists may find a profitable opening for investment. 
The decline in prosperity of the sugar industry of 
Cuba, which showed itself years before the insurrec- 
tion, was not due solely to competition with the 
bounty-supported beet-sugar of Europe. The busi- 
ness has been wastefuUy conducted in many instances, 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. i6i 

the non-resident proprietors being ruined, while it is 
affirmed that their stewards and superintendents have 
pocketed enough of the profits to build the modern 
city of Barcelona. 

Even in the case of resident proprietors, the strict 
economy needed in modern industries has rarely been 
practised. The finest machinery has been bought and 
railroad tracks laid to convey the cane to the mills, but 
this covers only a fourth part of the cost of sugar pro- 
duction, three-fourths being expended upon the field 
culture. Here there are large opportunities for im- 
provement in the direction of more careful planting, 
cultivating, and cutting, by the aid of which the pro- 
duct might be increased one-third at the same cost. 
The planting and weeding are now nearly all done by 
hand. Harvesting is also done by hand, the machete 
taking the place of the cane-harvester which American 
inventive genius can be trusted to construct. With all 
the leaks of the past stopped up, there seems no suffi- 
cient reason w'hy the sugar industry may not again 
become profitable. 

There are also opportunities for intelligent industry 
in the direction of dairying, cattle-raising, and horse- 
breeding. The fertile pasture lands, as we have said, 
are of wide extent, and with more attention to the 
fattening of cattle for market a larger demand might 
be created for meat products. As regards the minor 
agriculture, — that of the truck, fruit, and dairy farms, 
— the openings for development are abundant. In 
addition to the home demand from an increasing city 
population, the United States offers a large market 
for w^inter supply, particularly of tropical fruits. 

Cuba, much the nearest of tropical countries to 
II 



i62 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

our shores, is capable of being made a veritable fruit 
garden, being specially adapted to the growing of 
oranges, pineapples, bananas, lemons, and other de- 
sirable tropical fruits. These, with the severe Spanish 
tariff restrictions removed, may be stimulated to an 
enormous production. The orange grows everywhere 
without cultivation, but to compete with that of 
Florida careful selection and improvement will be 
needed. The banana is similarly universal, and the 
pineapple finds favorable soil in the western section 
and the Isle of Pines. The lemons of the mountain 
region of Santiago de Cuba are equal to those of Sicily, 
while the peach and nectarine can be profitably grown. 
In short, so far as the products of the earth are con- 
cerned, Cuba offers a rich field for capital and enter- 
prise. 

Another opening for American energy lies in the 
direction of public improvements, for which there is 
everywhere a crying need. Here there is likely to be 
a generous field for engineering talent. The harbors 
need to be dredged, the cities properly drained, water- 
works built for many of them, railways constructed, 
highways extended, and improvements in other direc- 
tions made. Spain has for years drained the island 
of its revenue, ignoring the sadly needed public works 
and municipal improvements, and Cuba offers to-day 
a virgin field for the engineer. 

Common roads are everywhere required, and hun- 
dreds of narrow streams, now crossed by fords, need 
bridging, the fords being impassable in the rainy sea- 
son. In addition to the steam-railways, there is an 
excellent field for electric railways in the cities and 
their suburbs. Horse railways have long existed in 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 163 

Havana and some other cities, and foreign enterprise 
is already engaged in active projects for their exten- 
sion, in which the electric trolley system will replace 
the antiquated horse-cars. A Canadian and New York 
syndicate has purchased these railways and also the 
ferry line to Regla, and proposes to make considerable 
improvements in both; also to introduce the electric 
street railway and electric light into Cienfuegos. 

Other opportunities for American skill and capital 
lie in the direction of supplying new machinery to the 
revived sugar estates, of water-works for the cities, — 
few of which are well supplied, — of wharves in the 
harbors and the dredging of their channels, of develop- 
ing the iron, copper, and other mining industries, and, 
most pressing of all, of draining the towns, whose 
present sewers, where any exist, are mere disease 
breeders. The old system of dumping filth in the 
streets was safer than the existing unflushed and 
abominable drains, and to these is no doubt due much 
of the fever, dysentery, small-pox, and other prevalent 
diseases. These rarely appear on the interior estates, 
and have no proper abiding place in the cities. Cor- 
rect sanitation will regenerate the islaiid. 

The question of labor is a leading one in considering 
the industrial development of Cuba. The war and the 
emancipation of the slaves have completely overturned 
the old labor system of the island, and a thorough re- 
adjustment is needed. The negroes, while the hardiest 
of tropical laborers, are unreliable, and prefer city life 
to work on the plantations. White labor will need to 
be depended upon to a much larger extent than during 
the days of slavery. But additions to the Cuban and 
Spanish stock of laborers cannot safely be made from 



i64 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the United States, unless from the Gulf region. The 
men of the North could not stand the summer climate 
except at large sacrifice of life. If white immigrants 
are to seek Cuba as laborers, they should come from 
Southern Europe, and of these there is an abundant 
supply which can acceptably be deflected from the 
United States. 

For Americans, Cuba ofifers itself specially as a win- 
ter resort for health or pleasure. While its climate is 
ill adapted to those suffering from pulmonary com- 
plaints, it has many sanitary advantages, and the in- 
valids who visit its shores from December to May can 
scarcely fail of relief and physical aid. Those who 
have in view merely rest and recreation will find here 
a country of unsurpassed geniality of climate, pictur- 
esque scenery, and opportunities for enjoyment. 

To the United States, among the chief advantages 
of the liberation of Cuba will be a commercial one. 
Even under the restrictions of the Spanish control, our 
trade with the island was large. It was particularly 
so during the years when reciprocity in trade existed. 
These restrictions removed it must greatly increase, 
and much of the former sum of imports from Spain 
will undoubtedly be diverted to the United States. 
While taking more from Cuba than ever before, our 
exports thither must be largely enhanced, and the 
sum of exports and imports approximate far more 
closely than in the years of the past. 







c 



Railroads — ^ 

Main Roads 

Cart Roads 



.^ H I B Ti E d ?i 




P| 



jzl 



g6'30' 



c E -I ^ 



?5=^ 










ISLANDS 

EAST OF 

PUERTO RICO 

On Same Scale a> Main Map. 



SECTION II. 
PORTO RICO. 

• • • 

L HISTORICAL SKETCH- 

The island of Porto Rico (Spanish, Puerto Rico) was 
discovered by Columbus on his second voyage, No- 
vember i6, 1493. Three days later he landed and took 
possession in the name of Spain. In 1508, Ponce de 
Leon — the romantic Spaniard who afterwards vainly 
sought the fountain of youth in Florida — led an expe- 
dition to the island, subdued the aborigines, and 
within the next year or two founded, near the site of 
the present capital, a village which he named Caparra. 
This, which still exists under the name of Pueblo 
Viejo (old town), was soon abandoned by him, and 
in 151 1 he founded the city of San Juan Bautista, since 
then the capital of the island. 

The natives, of Arawak or Carib stock, — probably 
never very numerous, — suffered the usual fate of the 
West India aborigines under Spanish control, being 
enslaved and quickly in great part annihilated. No 
trace of them now remains, though there are people 
on the island whose hair and complexion seem to indi- 
cate a mixture of Indian and negro blood. 

There is little of interest in the early history of the 
island. Hurricanes, a Carib invasion, and other causes 

165 



i66 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

led to its temporary abandonment, and settlement pro- 
ceeded so slowly that in 1700 there were only a few 
small towns, the people being thinly scattered over the 
country. Chief among its troubles were attacks by 
British and other adventurers. Sir Francis Drake, the 
most active raider of the Spanish settlements in the 
New World, captured and sacked the capital in 1595, 
an exploit which was repeated three years afterwards 
by the Duke of Cumberland. A Dutch navigator 
named Baldwin Heinrich made an attack on the Cas- 
tello del Morro in 161 5, but lost his life in the attempt. 
Later attacks were equally unsuccessful. A large 
British fleet which assailed the town in 1698 was in 
great part destroyed by a hurricane; an unsuccessful 
attack was made by Dutch and British fleets in 1702, 
— though on this occasion a hurricane destroyed the 
Porto Rican fleet; and in 1797 Abercromby besieged 
the place in vain. 

Porto Rico, however, does not seem to have been 
highly regarded by Spain, it being used as a penal 
settlement, and its inhabitants largely composed of 
convicts sentenced to hard labor and their military 
guard. This state of afifairs has left its mark on the 
labor conditions of the island. Of the convicts, many 
succumbed to the severity of the tropical climate; 
while those who survived and received their freedom 
were thoroughly seasoned to the island conditions, and 
were obliged to continue their labors in the field in 
order to live. The same was the case with their de- 
scendants; the result being that the soil of Porto Rico 
is in considerable measure cultivated and its sugar 
made by whites. This enforced object lesson has the 
one merit of proving that white labor can be success- 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 167 

fully employed in the West India sugar industry. But 
the penal conditions have not been advantageous to 
the character of the succeeding free population, the 
great mass of whom continue in the state of besotted 
ignorance naturally resulting from the judicial servi- 
tude of many of their ancestors. 

Spain spent no money directly upon the island, 
whose needs were neglected, and the expenses of its 
administration met by remittances from Mexico. 
These were cut off on the outbreak of rebellion in the 
latter country in 1810, and the finances of the island 
fell into so desperate a condition that the mother- 
country was obliged to come to its aid. Hitherto but 
little attention had been paid to the island by Spain, 
and, as it was too poor to attract a horde of peculating 
officials like that which descended upon Cuba, it suf- 
fered little from misgovernment, and its people re- 
mained loyal to Spain. 

In 181 5 a decree was published in which the mother- 
country showed an unusual degree of liberality and 
political wisdom. As an inducement to colonists, the 
most favorable terms for settlement were offered, 
lands being given them and freedom from direct taxes 
granted. The tithes and some other taxes were re- 
mitted for a term of years, including the exportation 
duties, under whose weight the other Spanish settle- 
ments so severely suffered. This decree, while very 
beneficial to the Porto Rican people, had one ill effect. 
Under its influence, slave labor was introduced. Lack 
of capital and the poverty and indolence of the pre- 
vious settlers had stood in the way of an earlier use 
of slaves, the result being that the negro population 
of Porto Rico is comparatively small. 



i68 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The decree mentioned brought prosperity to Porto 
Rico, and there began an advance in wealth and popu- 
lation unequalled in degree in any other of the West 
India islands. It was added to by the insurrections in 
San Domingo and on the main-land, which drove to 
Porto Rico many Spanish capitalists of thorough busi- 
ness training and well adapted to develop the interests 
of the island. 

Yet the insurrectionary tendency in Spanish 
America had its effect upon Porto Rico, where in 1820 
an insurrection broke out and a declaration of inde- 
pendence was made. Fighting continued for three 
years, at the end of which time the supremacy of Spain 
was completely re-established. A later insurrection — 
that of Cuba in 1868 — gave rise to similar rebellious 
manifestations; the effect being a measure of reform 
on the part of Spain, — Porto Rico in 1870 ceasing to 
be a colony and becoming a province of Spain. Its 
people were given representation in the Cortes by 
delegates elected by universal suffrage, and acquired 
the rights of Spanish citizenship. In 1873 slavery was 
abolished, and all the negro population became free. 

As regards the provincial administration, little fa- 
vorable to it can be said. The governor-general re- 
tained his autocratic powers and continued in military 
control, while under him affairs were administered by 
a Spanish oligarchy, like that existing in colonial days. 
In 1897, when autonomy was offered to Cuba, a simi- 
lar system was introduced in Porto Rico, — a House 
of Representatives being elected, a prime minister 
chosen, and all the forms of a home government es- 
tablished, nothing being wanting but the fact of actual 
home rule. Tranquil as the people appeared under 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 169 

Spanish domination, and prosperous as they had be- 
come, there would seem to have existed a current of 
discontent analogous to that in Cuba, if we may judge 
from the warm welcome which they gave the Ameri- 
can soldiers in 1898. 

On the 25th of July of the year mentioned the trans- 
ports bearing the American army under General 
Miles entered the harbor of Guanica, in the south- 
western section of the island, and the village of that 
name was taken possession of by United States troops. 
Two days afterwards the harbor of the port of Ponce 
was entered. Here, instead of the expected resistance, 
the Americans were received with wild enthusiasm by 
the people, who fraternized with the soldiers and 
loudly cheered the American flag. 

A similar enthusiasm was shown in the city of 
Ponce, and in other places occupied by the troops; 
the demand of the people for the stars and stripes 
being so great that the stock of flags was exhausted 
and General Miles cabled home for more. This flat- 
tering reception continued as the troops advanced 
from point to point, the Americans everywhere re- 
ceiving the warmest of welcomes from the people. 

The Spanish opposition was nowhere strong, though 
it seemed probable that a vigorous resistance would 
be made at Aibonito, a strongly fortified mountain 
position in the centre of the island. But before this 
stronghold was reached, the movement of invasion 
came to an end, a protocol of peace being signed at 
Washington on August 12, the news of which reached 
the front in Porto Rico on the 13th. In the days that 
succeeded, the feeling of the Islanders towards Spain 
was indicated by violence on the part of some of them 



I70 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

towards the Spanish residents, many of whom ap- 
pealed to the Americans for protection; while the 
town of Cota was burned and its Spanish citizens were 
forced to flee for their lives. This feeling may in a 
measure be accounted for by the recent discovery that 
the laborers on the large sugar plantation had been 
kept in a state of peonage, being paid but a pittance 
for their labor and forced to buy at the worst kind of 
company store, which gave short weight in every- 
thing. None of the pound packages of rice, for in- 
stance, weighed more than three-fourths of a pound. 

By the terms of the peace protocol the island of 
Porto Rico was to be ceded by Spain to the United 
States. A commission was appointed on the part of 
both governments to arrange for its evacuation by 
the Spanish troops, and on the i8th of October, 1898, 
the American flag was raised over San Juan, and the 
island finally passed out of the possession of Spain. 

As the stars and stripes at the hour of twelve rose 
to the top of the flag-pole over the governor's palace 
and unfolded in the air, the throng of towns-people, 
who had waited the event in deep silence, bared their 
heads and broke into cheers. Salutes were fired from 
the forts, handshaking and fraternization of soldiers 
and citizens followed, and in a burst of enthusiasm the 
island of Porto Rico, for nearly four centuries a colony 
of Spain, passed under the dominion of the United 
States, and entered upon a new phase of existence as 
a component part of the great free republic of the 
West. 



n. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 

SIZE AND SITUATION. 

The island of Porto Rico is of minor importance in 
dimensions as compared with that of Cuba, having less 
than a twelfth of its area, though it has six times its 
density of population. It lies about 500 miles to the 
eastward of Cuba, the large island of Hayti inter- 
vening, between which and Porto Rico flows the 
seventy miles wide ocean channel known as the Mona 
Passage. The island lies farther south than Cuba, 
being bounded by the parallels of 17° 50' and 18° 30' 
of north latitude. Its east and west boundaries are re- 
spectively 65° 35' and 67° 10' west longitude; and it 
has an area, as at present estimated, of 3668 square 
miles, somewhat less than that of Jamaica. As com- 
pared with the States of the American Union, its area 
is a fourth less than that of Connecticut and less than 
half that of New Jersey. 

Porto Rico has been spoken of by one writer as the 
only known island in the shape of a brick; it forming 
a fairly regular parallelogram, nearly three times as 
long as it is wide, the sides extending nearly due east 
and west, and the ends irregularly north and south. 
The north and south coasts are indented somewhat 
like the teeth of a saw. The greatest length, from 
east to west, is estimated at 108 miles, and breadth 
thirty-seven miles, though no very accurate measure- 
ments exist. The coast line is about 360 miles in 
length. 

171 



172 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. 

Throughout the length of the island, from east to 
west, extends a mountain range, of about 1800 feet in 
average height. Its slopes are so situated that the 
streams flowing north are much longer than those 
flowing south. The uplands occur in masses and 
ridges, presenting no clear arrangement in their 
general disposition; the chief range lying near the 
southern coast and ramifying westward into several 
branches, which end in highlands on the western 
shores. From near San German, in the southwest, 
the hill country extends to the northeast corner of 
the island, reaching its highest altitude in the Sierra 
Luquillo, in the east, where the Yunque peak is 3609 
feet high. These mountains extend laterally towards 
the south under the title of the Sierra de Cayey. 
Farther west various names are given to the ramifi- 
cations of the upland system, there being a ridge, with 
summits of considerable altitude, near San German, 
known as the Tetas de Montero. 

The forests, which probably at one time covered the 
entire island, have been reduced until they are now 
restricted to the higher portions of the sierras, where 
they play their part in the control of the abundant 
water-supply. The uplands slope downward in gently 
rolling divides, or terraces, sinking, as they approach 
the coast, into wide and well-watered plains, beautiful 
in aspect, and largely devoid of the fever-breeding 
swamps which haunt the Cuban coast. Between the 
hills lie valley lands of remarkable richness, capable 
of yielding astonishing crops. As a rule, it may be 
said that the island consists almost entirely of moun- 
tains and their sloping descents. 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 173 

In its general appearance the island is picturesque 
and beautiful; its fertile and verdant plains, rolling 
hills, numerous streams, and variety of vegetation pro- 
ducing many engaging landscape effects. In the 
words of one of its admirers, it is " one of the most 
lovely of all those regions of loveliness which are 
washed by the Caribbean Sea; even in that archipelago 
it is distinguished by the luxuriance of its vegetation 
and the soft variety of its scenery." 

RIVERS AND LAKES. 

Porto Rico is exceptionally well watered, it being 
credited with the large number of 1300 streams, of 
which forty-six are classed as rivers, the remainder 
being minor water-courses. Some of the rivers are 
over sixty miles long, and several of those of the north 
have been given the grandiloquent name of Rio 
Grande. The northeast trade-winds, which form the 
prevailing air currents, part with most of their moist- 
ure in the northern hill-slopes; the result being that 
the lowlands of this region sometimes receive an ex- 
cess of rain, and are intersected by numerous rivers, 
perennial in their flow. On the other hand, severe 
and long-continued droughts occur in the south, where 
frequently scarcely any rain falls for months. Arti- 
ficial irrigation is here necessary, and opportunity for 
it appears to exist in the statement that water may 
everywhere be found within half a yard of the surface. 
Yet, so far, irrigation has been carried on with little 
system or co-operation. 

The rivers reach the coast at right angles on all the 
sides of the island, the more important of them being 
the Loiza or Rio Grande, Bayamon, Plata, Cibuco, 



174 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Manati, Arecibo, Camuy, and Guajataca, flowing 
northward; the Portuges, Jacaguas, Descalabrado. 
Coamo, Guamani, and Guayanes, which flow to the 
south; the Culebrinas, Anasco, Guanajibo, and Maya- 
guez, emptying in the Mona Passage at the west, and 
the Humacao, Naguabo, and Fajardo, seeking the 
waters of the east. Some of these are navigable for six 
to ten miles for small vessels, though bars at their 
mouths seriously obstruct navigation. 

There are eight lakes, all small, including the north- 
ern ones of Martinpifia, Tortuguero, Pinofies, and 
Cano Tiburones; the southern, of Flamencos, Cien- 
aga, and Guanica; and Albufera de Joyuda, on the 
east. Towards the southwest there are swampy tracts 
of coast, but the islanders are fortunate in the absence 
of the stagnant pools which so often vitiate tropical 
atmospheres, but which here rarely occur. On the 
other hand, the numerous streams offer exceptional 
advantages in the way of irrigation and water-power. 

ISLANDS. 

The political organization of Porto Rico embraces 
three small neighboring islands, that of Mona on the 
west, and those of Culebra and Vieques on the east. 
Mona gives its name to the broad channel between 
Porto Rico and Hayti, and is precipitous in aspect, 
perpendicular white cliffs, about 170 feet high, com- 
posing its shores. These cliffs are full of holes and 
contain many caves. The bold headland on the west 
is topped by a huge overhanging rock, named by 
seamen, Caigo-o-no-caigo (" Shall I fall or not?"). 
Mona signifies " Monkey," and near by is an islet 
named Monito, or *' Little Monkey." 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 175 

Vieques and Culebra, in the channel between Porto 
Rico and the Virgin Islands, are known as the Islas 
de Paseje. Culebra is about six miles long by three 
wide, and has 500 inhabitants, who are principally en- 
gaged in raising small fruits. Vieques, or Crab Island, 
the larger of the two, is about thirteen miles from 
Porto Rico; its dimensions are twenty-one miles by 
six, and a chain of mountains runs through its length. 
Almost all the fruits and vegetables of the West Indies 
can be grown here, the land being very fertile. It has 
a population of about 6000, and a healthful climate 
that renders it secure from contagious diseases. There 
are several ports, including Isabel Segunda on the 
north and Punta Arenas on the south. These islands 
constitute part of the new acquisitions of the United 
States, they having formed part of the Porto Rican 
dominion of Spain. 

HARBORS. 

The commerce of Porto Rico is confined to a few 
harbors, of which the most important are those of 
San Juan and Ponce. The entrance to the former is 
a narrow channel with rocky bottom, the entering ves- 
sels passing so near the bordering cliffs that it is 
almost possible to leap ashore from their decks. In 
the winter months this entrance becomes difficult and 
dangerous during the prevalence of a norther, when 
the channel is churned into a seething and foaming 
mass of waves, into which sailing-vessels can venture 
only at great risk, and which at times detain in harbor 
large steamers. 

The entrance bluff passed, there opens a broad and 
beautiful bay, constituting one of the finest harbors in 



176 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the West Indies. Of recent years, the channel has 
been widened and deepened until now it has a depth 
of twenty-nine and a half feet. Dredging has also im- 
proved the harbor, the depth at the wharves, formerly 
from ten to fourteen feet, being now more than twenty- 
two feet. 

Playa, the seaport of Ponce, has a spacious and ex- 
cellent harbor, capable of receiving and sheltering 
vessels of twenty-five feet draught. Here the Ameri- 
can fleet lay during the invasion of the island by Gen- 
eral Miles, after first entering the fine bay of Guanica, 
on the southwest coast. The latter is an excellent 
haven, but its usefulness is vitiated by the marsh lands 
adjoining. On the west coast are the harbors of Cabo 
Rojo and Mayaguez, the latter accessible only to ves- 
sels of less than sixteen feet draught. The bay of 
Cabo Rojo is nearly round, over three miles wide and 
sixteen feet deep, with good anchorage. Its entrance 
is by a narrow channel of some fifteen feet in depth. 
Aguadilla, in the northw^est, has a good shipping trade 
in agricultural products; it possessing a deep and spa- 
cious bay, well sheltered from the trade-winds, though 
not safe in case of north or southwest winds. 

The harbor of Arecibo, on the north coast, is simply 
an open roadstead, exposed to the full force of the 
ocean waves, while close in shore, on one side, are 
dangerous reefs. In loading, goods are taken in flat- 
bottomed boats over the river bar, thence transferred 
to lighters, and finally to the vessel to be freighted. 
Yet, despite these disadvantages, the town has a large 
shipping trade. 

On the east coast are the harbors of Fajardo, Hu- 
macao, and Naguabo, the first alone being safe during 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 177 

northers. On the southeast are the small ports of 
Salinas and Arroyo, the latter the port of Guayama, 
with a considerable trade in sugar. There are several 
other small harbors of minor importance, including 
those on Viequez Island. With the exception of San 
Juan, the harbors of the island have been permitted to 
silt up, without effort at prevention, much to the re- 
duction of their importance. As those of the north 
coast are injuriously affected by the northers in winter, 
so during the rainy season strong southerly winds 
often affect those of the south, causing the sea to break 
with great violence upon the coast. 

GEOLOGY. 

Little has yet been done in the way of geological 
exploration of Porto Rico, the only observations of 
importance being those of the Swedish geologist, P. 
T. Cleve. He found on the northern coast evidences 
of a very thick series of limestone strata, which had 
been denuded and cut through by streams, leaving 
their remnants as detached limestone hills. These dip 
downward to the sea at a very gradual inclination. As 
in the Antilles generally, the high mountains are cov- 
ered at their summits with limestone, yellowish white 
in color and very hard, except near San Juan, where it 
is soft. The fossils found in this rock assimilate it in 
age with the tertiary limestones of the other Antilles. 

These limestone rocks rest on an older formation of 
conglomerates and metamorphic rock, closely resem- 
bling the basic rocks of the hills of Jamaica and of the 
^^irgin Islands. The limestone cover is very probably 
of coral formation, representing an elevated reef; and 
coral animals are still actively at work building new 

12 



178 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

reefs along the south coast of the island, about four 
miles from shore. 

In Porto Rico, as in Cuba, there are many caves in 
the limestone formation, including the grand cavern 
of Pajita Inlares and the caves of Aguas-Buenas and 
Muertos. There are also numerous thermal and 
mineral springs, including those of Coama, Quintana, 
and various others. 

CLIMATE. 

The climate of Porto Rico has the warmth accord- 
ant with its tropical situation, but enjoys the reputa- 
tion of being more healthful and agreeable than that 
of any other island of the group of the Antilles. The 
mean temperature is about 80° F. ; the temperature of 
San Juan, as indicated by twenty years of observation, 
averaging 78.9°. The highest temperature reached 
during this period — on three occasions only — was 99° ; 
the lowest 57.2°. Usually, the midday heat in the 
warmer months reaches 88°, the temperature sinking 
to 80° during the night. In the cooler period, the 
morning temperature may be 70°, sometimes sinking 
to 60°. The temperature, therefore, varies little 
throughout the year, and during the warmest season 
the heats are tempered daily by a cooling north breeze. 

In the highland region of the interior the weather 
is cooler, and sometimes the night chill becomes un- 
pleasant. It is never cool enough for snow, however, 
and hail is a rare phenomenon. The unpleasant land 
winds, so constant at night in the other Antilles, are 
rarely felt here. Of the towns of the island, those en- 
joying the most temperate climate are the inland ones 
of Aibonito, Adjuntas, Cayey, Lares, Maricao, and 
Utuado, situated in the region of the mountains. As 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 179 

in the other Antilles, the warmest weather occurs in 
June, July, August, and September; the coolest in the 
three winter months. 

The mean monthly temperature of Porto Rico varies 
no more than six degrees, and the extreme limits 
are only forty degrees, perpetual summer prevailing. 
During the rainy season, tropical hurricanes are not 
infrequent; and at times these have been very violent 
and destructive. There is an average annual rainfall 
of 59.5 inches; the driest season being from December 
to March, the wettest month November, with a rain- 
fall of 7.6 inches. Even during the *' dry season" there 
is sufficient rain for the needs of vegetation. 

During the summer months rain often falls in abun- 
dant showers, attended by strong winds. The fall is 
usually between noon and four p.m., a clear and 
beautiful sunset following. The true rainy season 
begins in August and continues into December. As 
October nears its end, east and north winds set in, 
heavy downpours of rain attending the former, gentle 
showers the latter. To the abundant rainfall are due 
the multiplicity of streams and the luxuriance of the 
vegetation of the north, the fields being often inun- 
dated and extensive lagoons formed. But the rain- 
bearing winds are usually drained of their moisture 
by the central mountain ridge, south of which little 
rain falls, the droughts continuing sometimes for 
months. 

Porto Rico, despite the fact that its climate closely 
resembles that of the other Antilles, enjoys a greater 
immunity from disease than the neighboring islands, 
its mortality not exceeding that of some of the 
healthiest countries of Europe. The fevers and dysen- 



i8o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

tery of the tropics are common, as also pulmonary 
troubles; but yellow-fever rarely becomes serious. It 
visits the coast cities, but mostly in individual cases, 
and gains headway only in certain years when intense 
heat prevails. But in all cases the natives are largely 
exempt, the victims being unacclimated visitors. With 
cleanliness and proper sewerage, now sadly wanting, 
its occurrence would probably cease. 

On the whole, so far as climate and healthfulness 
are concerned, Porto Rico promises to be a more de- 
sirable addition to the United States than any of its 
sister islands; the best time to visit it being in the 
drier and cooler months between December and May. 
The temperature of summer tends to produce debili- 
tating effects, and those who have been ill remain 
weak, not regaining their strength until removed to 
the mountains or the north. The inundation of the 
earth during the rainy season is not conducive to 
health. But, as a recent visitor says, " Taking the 
climate all in all, it is not unhealthy; and there is no 
more danger of fever or sickness in Porto Rico than 
in the State of Pennsylvania, if a person takes proper 
care of himself and does not at first become over- 
fatigued." 



IIL NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

PLANT LIFE* 

Though no obstruction has been placed in the way 
of the scientific visitor to Porto Rico, but httle note 
of its conditions and productions has been made. Its 
geology is not well known, its area is merely an esti- 
mate, and its flora and fauna await systematic study. 
This is not in consequence of any difficulties in ex- 
ploration, but through seeming lack of interest, and 
the fact that Porto Rico lies out of the usual route of 
travel. The beauty of the island vegetation has fre- 
quently been remarked, and the variety and dimen- 
sions of its trees noted, but a full exploration is still 
wanting. Primeval forests, which once extended over 
the whole island, still cover the higher elevations, re- 
sembling in character those of the other Antilles, yet 
with a remarkable absence of the epiphytes, or air 
plants, which usually flourish in tropical forests. This 
is not due to any lack of moisture; yet of this class of 
plants there are to be found only a few bromeliads 
and a stray example of the orchid family. 

Baron Eggers, who visited the Sierra Luquillo In 

1883, and made what seems the only investigation of 

the forest vegetation, found there only a single species 

of palm, growing at high altitudes. There were two 

species of tree-ferns, and other trees of much beauty 

and utility. The ortegon of the natives (Coccohba 

macrophylla) is one of the most conspicuous trees, 

forming extensive woods near the coast. It bears im- 

181 



i82 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

mense purple spikes, more than a yard long. This 
tree is confined to Porto Rico and Hayti. There are 
also a beautiful tillandsia, bearing immense white 
odorous flowers and silvery leaves, very ornamental 
in appearance and yielding a timber called sabino; a 
hirtella, with crimson flowers; another species with 
purple flowers and beautiful orange-hued foliage, and 
various trees of similarly striking aspect. 

Of the useful woods may be named the cedar, of 
both the hard and the soft varieties, and the West 
India ebony and sandal-wood, all of which are com- 
mon. Another common wood, called ausubo, is used 
largely for building purposes. Woods suitable for 
construction, indeed, are numerous, twenty or more 
species occurring, known chiefly by native names. So 
excellent are some of the woods that Porto Rican tim- 
ber has been largely used in building the royal palace 
at Madrid, including mahogany, cedar, ebony, ausubo, 
aceitillo (oil wood), and other varieties. 

In addition to lumber trees there are said to be 
some thirty medicinal plants, eight resinous woods, a 
dozen plants useful for dyeing and tanning, as many 
plants used for condiments, and a considerable variety 
of fruit-bearing trees. Of the latter, one of the most 
ubiquitous is the cocoa, which grows everywhere in 
the coasf region, however sandy and unfertile. Its 
nuts are an important article of commerce and home 
consumption, and the tree itself is put to many uses. 

The royal palm seems indigenous here, as in Cuba, 
and is much used for ornamental purposes. It has 
also its utilities, — one being the use of the leaf spathes 
for the roofing, and often the framing, of the native 
huts. Another palm of striking appearance is the 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 183 

beautiful orcodoxa, a tenant of the hills and mountains, 
where it at times attains the unusual height of 150 feet. 

ANIMAL LIFE. 

There is nothing peculiar in the fauna of Porto 
Rico, which presents, indeed, a marked deficiency of 
native animals. Its largest indigenous quadruped is 
the agouti, an animal of the size and habits of a hare, 
a shy and timid creature, inhabiting rocky hill-sides 
and wood borders. We may name, in addition, the 
shell-covered armadillo, much hunted for its savory 
flesh, and among reptiles the iguana, a creature of 
hideous aspect, but whose savage appearance belies it, 
since it is naturally timid and only fights when cor- 
nered. Unattractive as it looks, it is said to form a 
delicious dish when stewed. Of wild animals, the only 
dangerous one is the wild dog, which has escaped 
from civilization and haunts the forests, making dep- 
redations on the farmers' pigs and calves. It hunts 
in bands, and, though never attacking man, it might 
kill children if they came unprotected in its way. Wild 
hogs also are occasionally seen. 

The island is fortunately free from poisonous ser- 
pents; its one large snake, the boa, being regarded 
rather with favor than dislike, since it is harmless to 
man, and is of use as a destroyer of rats and mice. It 
is from six to twelve feet in length. The insect pests 
of the West Indies are not lacking, including scor- 
pions, tarantulas, centipedes, wood-ticks, fleas, and 
chigoes; yet with proper care danger from these may 
be avoided. A destructive insect is the wood-ant, or 
wood-louse, which bores into timber and furniture, 
quickly reducing it to powder. At times, in the his- 



i84 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

tory of the island, this insect has proved a serious 
scourge, and the abandonment of the first settlement, 
Caparra, was due to its attacks. 

Birds are numerous in the mountains, the species 
including the dove; and along the coast the flamingo 
is found in great numbers, also the pelican. There 
are in addition pigeons, parrots, plover, snipe, ducks, 
and various sea-fowl, and the game birds include wild 
guinea-fowl and turkeys. The song and plumage 
birds are not plentiful, there being among them mock- 
ing-birds, troupials, wild canaries, and sugar birds; 
while there are several varieties of thrushes, owls, 
hawks, kingfishers, etc.; there being in all about 
150 species of birds in the island. Among these are a 
few species of humming-birds, very numerous in indi- 
viduals, which haunt like flying gems the gardens of 
the island at all seasons of the year. 

Of the fauna of the island, the most interesting form 
is the gigantic tortoise, similar, except in size, to the 
land-turtle of Trinidad and the adjacent South Ameri- 
can shores. It is said to be closely allied to the huge 
tortoises of the Galapagos and Mascarene islands. 
The fresh waters contain few species of fish, but the 
surrounding seas are rich in edible fishes of every size, 
shape, color, and quality, which are found in the bays 
and channels and in the deeper waters, including the 
anchovy, sardine, eel, shad, sword- and saw-fishes, 
shark, and various other species. 

MINERALS. 

The mineral products of Porto Rico have been but 
little developed, and await fuller research. Gold seems 
to have been mined by the early Spaniards in placer 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 185 

deposits, and is said to exist in the rivers of the Sierra 
Luquillo, Corazal, and Mayaguez, but Httle is known 
regarding it. The occurrence of mercury is reported 
by Cleves, and iron has been found in several locahties, 
specular ore on the Rio Cuyul and elsewhere, and 
magnetic ore at Gurabo and Ciales. Loiza is said to 
possess as fine iron as that of Cuba. Considerable 
copper has been found at Naguabo; zinc, rock-crystal. 
coal, etc., in the Mala Pascua Mountains: grindstone 
in Moca, granite in Maunabo and Yabucoa, marble in 
Caguas, Rio Piedras, etc., and plaster and whitestone 
in Ponce and Juana Diaz. As to the quantity of these 
metals and minerals and their adaptation to mining 
operations, the future must tell. At present their rich- 
ness is an unknown quantity. 

There are some natural salt works on the island, 
principally in Guanica, Coamo, and Cabo Rojo, and 
salt has been obtained in considerable quantities at 
these localities. As yet it is the only mineral product. 

The Rio Prieto yields large quartz crystals of fine 
quaHty, malachite has been found at Rio Blanco, and 
fine agate at Kaja de Muestos. The other minerals 
include molybdenite, limonite, magnetic pyrites, epi- 
dote, garnet, chrysocolla, and other species. What is 
known concerning the mineral resources of the island 
indicates that it may possess valuable resources in this 
direction. 



IV. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS- 
GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION. 

Under the Spanish administration, the supreme 
authority in Porto Rico was vested in a governor- 
general, who was also military governor of the island, 
the troops being commanded by a deputy appointed 
by him. There was an elective council, to be consulted 
concerning the government of the island, though pos- 
sessing no executive authority. Justice was adminis- 
tered by four courts, — one supreme over the whole 
island and three criminal courts, one each at San Juan, 
Ponce, and Mayaguez. Minor justices served for local 
administration of the laws. 

The island was divided into seven departments. 
These, named from the chief city of each, bore the 
following titles: Aguadilla, Arecibo, Bayamon, Guay- 
ama, Humacao, Mayaguez, and Ponce. These em- 
braced in all about seventy villages, in each of which 
the governing power was represented by an alcalde. 
The island, as has been already stated, was repre- 
sented in the Cortes of Spain, and under the 1897 
system of autonomy was granted a home parliament. 
But, as in Cuba, Spain kept a firm grasp upon the 
reins of power, and these seemingly free institutions 
were so only in form. 

We speak here in the past tense, since the form of 

government described no longer exists, Porto Rico 

having passed from the dominion of Spain to that of 

the United States. The war was succeeded by a tem- 

186 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 187 

porary period of military rule, until a form of govern- 
ment could be organized in accordance with the liberal 
institutions of the United States. 

As in all Spanish countries, the oiificial religion of 
Porto Rico is the Roman Catholic, supported by taxa- 
tion. Ecclesiastical affairs are administered by a 
bishop, attached to the archbishopric of Santiago dc 
Cuba. This dignitary has the credit of holding the 
most ancient bishopric in America, the earliest incum- 
bent of the office being appointed at the first settle- 
ment by Pope Julius IL The island is divided into 
many vicarages, and every minor district has its cu- 
rate. The intolerance shown in Cuba, however, is not 
quite so fully manifested in Porto Rico, since there is 
at least one Protestant church in the island, in the city 
of Ponce, though it is not at present used. It is likely 
to come into use, and others added, under the influ- 
ence of American religious liberty. 

ROADS AND RAILWAYS. 

Porto Rico is better supplied than Cuba with 
traversable highways, and one is able to travel in 
parts of the island with some degree of comfort. 
Chief for excellence among its routes of travel is the 
military road that crosses the island from San Juan 
to Ponce, and which is an admirably-constructed 
turnpike, eighty-five miles long. On a level founda- 
tion is laid a thick layer of crushed rock and brick, 
closely packed and covered with earth. The top 
dressing is a layer of ground limestone, which has 
been pressed and rolled until it glistens. In that 
climate, and with no heavy travel, this forms an ex- 
cellent and durable roadway. 



i88 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

There are well-constructed roads in other parts of 
the island connecting the towns, the total length of 
good highways being less than 250 miles. An effort 
has been made to encircle the island with a series of 
highways; this quadrilateral to be connected with a 
second one inland by transverse roads. But this is 
far from completed, and most of the interior is only to 
be reached by bridle-paths, or horse and mule trails, 
on which travellers must go in single file. 

The length of good roadway is likely soon to be 
considerably increased. Even during the brief period 
of the war, General Roy Stone was actively engaged 
in road-building, for military purposes, between Ad- 
juntas and Utuado, and the labor thus inaugurated is 
sure to be continued. 

The construction of railways has been fairly com- 
menced, there being at present 137 miles completed 
and in operation, while 170 miles more are under pro- 
cess of construction. In 1888, a project was formed of 
encircling the island with a railroad; a Spanish com- 
pany being organized, and two years' interest at eight 
per cent, on the capital being guaranteed by the 
government. The length of the road was to be 283 
miles, of which 119 had been completed by 1892. 
Since then little has been done, the government having 
withdrawn its support. The longest section of road is 
that from San Juan, along the north coast, to Camuy, 
a distance of sixty and a half miles. Another road 
from San Juan runs fourteen miles to La Carolina. Of 
other lines in operation may be named that from 
Ponce to Yauco, twenty and a half miles, and that 
from Aguadilla to Hormiguero, thirty-five miles. 
Some of these better deserve the title of tramways. 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 189 

The length of telegraph now in operation is 470 
miles, the wires being under government control. The 
telephone has been introduced, and is in use in the 
principal cities. There is submarine cable connection 
with other West Indian islands. 

As regards steamship connection with distant lands, 
it is at present mainly commercial. There has for 
years been a line to New York, principally carrying 
freight. The coasting trade of the island is sadly defi- 
cient. There is said to be but one small boat engaged 
in this trade, quite insufficient in size to take all the 
freight that is ofifered, and selecting the smaller and 
more profitable articles in preference. 

POPULATION. 

Porto Rico is somewhat closely settled, its popula- 
tion having grown with considerable rapidity during 
the present century. In 1830 it contained about 320,- 
000 people. These had increased by i860 to 583,308; 
by 1880 to 754,313; and at the census of 1887 to 806,- 
708. At the present time the population probably ap- 
proaches a million, or some 250 to the square mile, 
making it more densely peopled than any of the West 
India islands except Rarbadoes. For this reason, Mr. 
Hanna, the American consul in the island, has advised 
intending immigrants from the United States to stay 
away, particularizing '* such persons as clerks, car- 
penters, mechanics, and laborers of all grades," there 
being '' several hundred thousand Porto Ricans ready 
to fill the vacant jobs, and at a low price." 

At present there is a remarkably small proportion 
of foreigners on the island, less than one per cent., 
nearly the whole population being native. There is 



igo OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

another particular in which Porto Rico differs from 
the West India islands in general, — the white out- 
numbering the black and colored people. In this re- 
spect it is only matched by Cuba. 

The natives of the island are usually divided into 
four classes, — those who consider themselves the 
superior class, and rejoice in the name of Spaniards; 
the peasant class, usually called giharos; the mestizo 
class, of mixed blood; and the blacks. During the 
period when Porto Rico was a pendl colony, many of 
the military men who formed the colonial garrison 
married and settled in the island, and it is their de- 
scendants who now constitute the upper or Spanish 
class. Some of these are wealthy and all of them 
proud, filled with Spanish opinions and prejudices, 
and manifesting all the stateliness of deportment of 
the Spanish grandee. From this class come most of 
the merchants, planters, and professional people of 
the island. 

The lower class of whites constitute the small 
farmers in the country, and many who in the cities 
manage to support life by any labor that comes to 
their hamls. They are of old Spanish stock, many of 
them the descendants of former convicts; but there is 
some reason to believe that they have become modified 
by an admixture of Indian blood. Their adaptation 
to field work under the tropical sun indicates that the 
whites, despite the prevailing theory, are capable of 
becoming acclimated to out-door labor in the climate 
of the West Indies. 

The black and colored population forms, with the 
gibaros, the laboring class of the island. They are in 
a minoritv, have been well treated, and seem thor- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 191 

oiighly content with their lot, which is more than can 
be said of the colored people of the other West Indian 
islands. There is a reason for this in the relations of 
equality existing between the whites and the negroes. 
As early as 1830 there were far more free colored 
people in Porto Rico than in any other island of the 
West Indies, and for a quarter of a century all the 
negroes have been free. The gibaro, like the white in 
any land, is not without the pride of race; but he has 
not thought of treating his fellow-laborer of dark 
skin with contumely or contempt. The whole former 
policy of the island was based upon humane treatment 
of the slaves, and the good effects of this policy are 
reflected in the present status of the blacks. 

Under the Spanish laws, the relations between mas- 
ter and slave were carefully considered, the hours of 
labor, quantity of food and clothing, and other particu- 
lars being provided for. Owners were obliged to give 
their slaves instruction in the tenets of Christianity, 
and humane regulations for the encouragement of 
marriage were made. As regards punishment, twenty- 
five stripes were the maximum which could be law- 
fully given. Of course, such regulations as these are 
apt to become dead letters unless sustained by the 
sentiment of the people. Similarly humane laws were 
passed to regulate the treatment of slaves in Cuba, 
but they were broken at will. In Porto Rico, on the 
contrary, good treatment of the slaves seems to have 
been the general rule, and a feeling of amity is the pre- 
vailing sentiment between whites and blacks. 

According to the last official census, that of Decem- 
ber 31, 1887, the population of the island was as fol- 
lows : 



192 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

White .... 480.267 

Colored 248,690 

Black 77,751 

806,708 

Spanish in descent 800,963 

Foreigners 5,745 

806,708 

Able to read and write 96,867 

Able to read only 14,513 

Illiterate 695,328 

806,708 

EDUCATION. 

The census returns for 1887 just given indicate a 
very low condition of public education in Porto Rico. 
In truth, what education exists on the island is almost 
confined to the higher class, — the gibaros being de- 
plorably ignorant and the negroes, of course, in the 
same condition. The Spanish government has made 
some efforts to promote the cause of education. In 
1882, it was ordered that a portion of the direct taxes 
should be applied to the estabHshment of free schools. 
A few years subsequently, it appearing that the small 
farmers and planters lived so isolated a life that their 
children could not attend school regularly, it was pro- 
posed to concentrate these people mto agricultural 
colonies and villages, with a view to the advancement 
of education. 

These measures have had little effect, eighty-seven 
per cent, of the people being illiterate, despite the fact 
that on paper a satisfactory provision for education 
exists. The school system, as organized, provides for 
three grades of instruction, — primary, secondary, and 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL "RELATIONS. 193 

superior. There seems to be a considerable niini])er 
of the elementary schools through the cities and the 
rural districts, while the superior schools number 
twelve, eight being for boys and four for girls. Boys, 
indeed, have the best of it; and the women of the 
island are very generally illiterate. 

In addition to the public schools, there are many 
private schools and seminaries, and the so-called 
Spanish or higher class pay considerable attention to 
the education of their children. San Juan possesses 
a college in which medicine and law may be studied, 
and a normal school to which students of both sexes 
are admitted. For those able to read, some literary 
provision has been made, the island, in 1894, possess- 
ing thirty-five newspapers and periodicals. Of these, 
seventeen were published in San Juan, eight in Maya- 
guez, and seven in Ponce. 



t3 



V. CENTRES OF POPULATION- 
GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The abundant population of Porto Rico has brought 
nearly the whole surface under cultivation, and, in 
addition to the large cities, there are more than fifty 
towns, the centres of small departments containing 
from six to thirty thousand inhabitants. The effort 
of Spain to concentrate the people has been in a meas- 
ure successful, many of the rural laborers dwelling in 
towns or villages, whence they proceed daily to the 
fields. Thus the country, with the exception of the 
unsettled mountain elevations, presents the aspect of 
a continuous succession of farms and villages. Some 
of the towns date back to the era of original settle- 
ment, others were founded within the eighteenth cen- 
tury, and a considerable number in the nineteenth, as 
a result of the rapid increase in population. 

The towns present a general resemblance in plan 
and mode of building, and are closely affiliated with 
those of Cuba in their narrow streets, central plazas, 
and gaudily-painted, stuccoed houses. The larger 
cities are chiefly seaports, and are of sufficient impor- 
tance to call for a separate description. 

SAN JUAN. 

The capital and oldest town on the island, San Juan 
Bautista de Puerto Rico, to give it its full official title, 
is situated on the north coast, at a point approaching 
194 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 195 

the east end, its location being a long, narrow island 
which bears some resemblance to an arm with the 
attached hand. The principal portion of the city is 
on the expanded area representing the hand, which is 
about half a mile wide. The average width of the 
island is less than a quarter of a mile, its length about 
two and a quarter miles. It is connected with the 
main-land by a bridge named San Antonio. At its 
western extremity, it is three-fourths of a mile from 
the main-land, and ends in a rugged promontory, a 
hundred feet or more in height. 

On the summit of this bluf¥ rises Morro Castle, the 
principal fortification of the harbor. On a little islet 
ofif the mouth of the harbor is the small but strong 
fort of Canuelo, between which and Morro all ships 
entering the port must pass. Farther along the shore, 
connected by a wall with the Morro, is the castle of 
San Cristobal, which crosses the island, facing both 
seaward and landward, and forming a part of the city 
wall. In addition are the outlying forts of San An- 
tonio and San Geronimo, which defend the bridge to 
the main-land. Inland, sharply outlined against the 
sky, rises a range of mountains, whose spurs come 
down in broken hills almost to the sea. 

The harbor, which occupies the space between the 
island and the shore, has been already described. The 
city itself is ancient in date, having been founded in 
151 1, immediately after the settlement of Porto Rico, 
and retains traces of its antiquity, particulady in its 
walls, which are maintained in their original integrity, 
and present us with a perfect example of the defences 
of a mediaeval town. The walls, which include in their 
circuit the fortifications of El Morro and San Cristo- 



196 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

bal, are in excellent condition, massive and strong, and 
in places more than a hundred feet high. With their 
moat, gates, portcullis, and battlements, they form a 
highly picturesque spectacle. The city has overrun 
its walls in two localities, called the Marina and Puerta 
de Espaiia, of three or four thousand inhabitants each ; 
and there are two small suburbs on the main-land, 
San Turce and Cataiio, built on sand-spits and sur- 
rounded by mangrove swamps. The total population 
is about 30,000. 

The city possesses various relics of antiquity, em- 
bracing the fortress of San Catalina, in the circuit of 
its walls, built in 1534, and the Morro, dating back to 
1584. Near the latter is another interesting edifice, 
the " Casa Blanca," the castle of Ponce de Leon, who 
was the settler and first governor of the island. It is 
the largest building in the city, and in it are kept, in 
a leaden case, the mortal remains of the noted searcher 
for the fountain of youth. 

San Juan is regularly laid out, its streets crossing 
at right angles, some of them following the length of 
the island, and others running transversely. They are 
wider than those in the old town of Havana, two car- 
riages being able to pass each other; but the side- 
walks^ in places, are only wide enough for a single 
person. The streets are paved with glazed brick, due 
to the prevalence of small-pox some years ago, which 
caused the tearing up of the old, imperfect pavement. 

The town, like all those of the Spanish West Indies, 
has its breathing places, there being four spacious and 
shady plazas, while there are three streets beautifully 
shaded by trees, — the Princesa, the Govadonga, and 
the Puerto de Tierra. There is one agreeable feature 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 197 

not common in the Spanish West Indies; the streets 
are subjected to a daily hand-sweeping and are kept 
pleasantly clean. The same cannot be said of the 
houses, which are as notable for filth as the streets are 
for cleanliness. The ground floors of the two-story 
buildings, whose upper floors serve as residences for 
the more respectable inhabitants, are occupied by ne- 
groes and the poorer classes generally, and are fright- 
fully crowded, — a whole family often occupying a 
single room, divided by a flimsy partition. 

The result is the reverse of sanitary, and the city, 
which from its situation should be healthful, is much 
the reverse. The basic soil is a rock-like mixture of 
clay and lime, impermeable by water and furnishing 
a good natural drainage; but the dense crowding of 
the people, and their very primitive ideas of cleanli- 
ness, invite disease. About 20,000 people, half of them 
of negro descent, and most of them ground-floor 
dwellers as described, are crowded within the walls, 
while the suburbs contain probably 10,000 more. 

The deficiency of potable water and the lack of 
sewerage add to the unhealthfulness of the city. No 
water has been introduced, and there are no fresh- 
water wells ; so that the people have to depend on rain- 
water conducted from the flat roofs of the buildings 
to the cisterns, which occupy the greater part of the 
court-yards. This water is very apt to become con- 
taminated, and may fail entirely in dry seasons. 
Vaults occupy the space in the court-yards not taken 
up by cisterns, and the only drainage is through the 
sinks and that caused by rains in the streets. 

Under these conditions, we cannot be surprised that 
frequent epidemics visit the town. Only for the strong 



198 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and fresh trade-winds, and the flow of the sea-water, 
which sweeps past at the speed of three miles an hour, 
the city would be unfit to live in. As it is, it swarms 
with vermin of all kinds, fleas, roaches, and other un- 
pleasant visitants. 

There is no excuse for such a state of afifairs in a 
modern city, and it will probably not much longer 
exist. San Juan is now a city of the United States, 
not of Spain, and cannot be permitted to maintain its 
unsavory condition. A plentiful supply of water from 
without, efificient sewerage, and stringent regulations 
regarding cleanliness would utterly transform the city, 
converting it from a plague-spot to a sanitarium. As 
regards the deficiency of water, an effort has been re- 
cently made to overcome it; a contract being made 
in 1892 with a London company to build an aqueduct 
from the main-land. The completion of this has been 
prevented by floods and other obstacles. 

San Juan has its fair share of public edifices, more 
or less attractive in appearance. In addition to the 
Cathedral, the churches include those of San Jose, 
San Francisco, Santa Ana, La Providencia, St. Augus- 
tine, and others. Other edifices include the Bank of 
Spain and Porto Rico, the Hotel Inglaterra, the Jesuit 
college, the Archbishop's palace, and various buildings 
devoted to public business, amusement, education, 
charity, etc. There are many shops and a number of 
large stores, tastefully arranged and well filled with 
goods. The port usually contains many vessels, being 
visited by steam- and sailing-craft of all nationalities. 

The benevolent institutions of San Juan include an 
orphan asylum, an insane asylum, a maternity hospital, 
the Hospital of Santa Rosa, and the College of St. Ilde- 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 199 

fonsa for the education of poor children. There are 
also many social organizations, founded upon a be- 
nevolent basis, but whose principal purpose is enjoy- 
ment. These embrace the Society for the Protection 
of Intelligence, the Grand Economic Society, the 
Friends of Peace, the Athenaeum, the Casino Espafiol, 
the Casino de San Juan, etc. 



PONCE, 

Ponce, the second city in commercial importance, 
is situated near the south coast of the island, in a 
southwest direction from San Juan, with which it is 
connected by the military road already mentioned. It 
has a civic population estimated at 22,000, with a large 
adjacent rural population, while Playa, its seaport, 
about two miles distant, has about 5000 inhabitants. 
The latter, lying on the spacious bay of which we have 
already spoken, contains the custom-house, the con- 
sular offices, etc., and is connected with Ponce by a 
fine highway. 

Ponce, which was founded by Ponce de Leon, whose 
name it bears, on his return from his Florida expedi- 
tion, is one of the most attractive cities on the island, 
containing many handsome residences, while it is sur- 
rounded by a fertile and beautiful plain. In its centre 
is a pretty plaza known as Las Delicias, having amid 
its tropical foliage an ornamental Turkish kiosk. The 
churches of the city include a cathedral and a Protes- 
tant Episcopal church; and there are a number of 
public edifices, including three first-class hotels, two 
hospitals besides the military hospital, a home for the 
old and poor, etc. The theatre, called the Pearl, is the 



200 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

finest on the island, and is handsome outside and at- 
tractive within. 

The houses of Ponce, built of stone and brick, re- 
semble those of San Juan. Those in the suburbs are 
usually of wood. The city is regularly laid out, is 
amply supplied with water by an aqueduct, and the 
heat of the climate is tempered by land breezes at 
night and sea-breezes during the day, so that, though 
it lacks the cool winds of San Juan, its warmth is not 
oppressive. Its record for healthfulness stands high, 
being much superior to that of San Juan. In the 
vicinity are medicinal baths, whose warm waters have 
a reputation for the cure of cutaneous complaints. 

MAYAGUEZ. 

This city, founded in 1752, at the point on the Mona 
Passage at which Columbus is said to have disem- 
barked on his visit in 1493, is the third commercial city 
of the island, having a large trade in the products of 
the adjacent fertile regions, and possesses, besides, 
three chocolate manufactories, whose product is con- 
sumed at home. It has a population estimated at 
11,000, of whom the larger number is white. Near by 
is a beautiful plain, in a high state of cultivation, over 
which flow the waters of the Rio Mayaguez. The 
climate bears a good reputation, the thermometer 
never recording a higher temperature than 90° F. 

A principal item in the trade of this port is coffee, 
its annual export averaging 170,000 hundred-weights. 
The quality is high, the prices obtained being those 
of the best brands. The lower grades are sent to 
Cuba. There are also large exports of sugar, pine- 
apples, oranges, and cocoa-nuts, all of which go prin- 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 201 

cipally to the United States. The imports of Maya- 
giiez inckide about 50,000 bags of flour annually, more 
than a fourth of the total receipts of the island. 

OTHER SEAPORTS. 

North of Mayaguez, and connected with it by rail- 
way, is the port of Aguadilla, a town of some 5000 in- 
habitants, well shaded by tropical trees, and with a 
central plaza in four sections, in each of which is a 
statue in the midst of a pretty garden. Fine grazing- 
lands surround the place, and sugar-cane, coffee, to- 
bacco, and cocoa-nuts are cultivated in the vicinity. 
Oranges and lemons are also grown, and fish are 
abundant. The distillation of rum from molasses is 
one of the chief industries of the town. 

Arecibo, in the western section of the north coast, 
is a town of about 7000 population, a thriving place 
with an active trade. Of the unsatisfactory character 
of its harbor we have already spoken. An extensive 
sandy beach lies between it and the ocean, through 
which flows a narrow and shallow stream called the 
Rio Grande de Arecibo. By way of this stream goods 
are conveyed to vessels in the roadstead, flat-bottomed 
boats being employed, pushed by long poles. This 
slow process, with the subsequent lighterage. Is a 
tedious and expensive operation; yet Arecibo serves 
as the port of an extensive and fertile district, and has 
a large commerce. In its vicinity are extensive coflfee 
and sugar plantations, fine grazing lands, etc. The 
town is built of wood and brick, its streets running at 
right angles from the central plaza, which is sur- 
rounded by public buildings. There are a large 
church, a theatre, and other edifices of importance. 



202 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The cave of Consejo, in the vicinity, is noted for the 
beauty of its stalactites. The valley of Arecibo River 
is one of the most picturesque and beautiful in the 
island. 

Of east-coast ports the principal is Fajardo, a town 
of some 3000 inhabitants, its leading industry being 
the manufacture of muscovado sugar, and the expor- 
tation of sugar, molasses, tortoise-shell, etc. Lumber 
and provisions are imported from the United States. 

Farther south, on the east side of the island, lies 
Naguabo, a small place of 2000 inhabitants; Playa de 
Naguabo, of 1500 people, on the harbor, serving as 
its port. Humacao, nine miles away, the capital of the 
department, has about 6000 inhabitants. CofTee is a 
prominent product of the district, and much fruit is 
grown. Cattle are also plentiful. 

On the south coast, in addition to the harbors of 
Ponce and Guanica, is that of Arroyo, near the east 
end of the island, and serving as the port of Guayama, 
four miles inland. It is a small place, yet serves as the 
shipping point for a fertile sugar district, exporting 
annually to the United States nearly 10,000 hogsheads 
of sugar, several thousand casks of molasses, and a 
hundred or more casks and barrels of bay-rum. Near 
by are the noted caves of Aguas Buenas, from one of 
which runs the river Caguitas, after a subterranean 
flow. 

INLAND TOWNS. 

Porto Rico, while possessing numerous villages in 
its elevated interior region, — manv of them attractive 
from their cool temperature and salubrious situation, 
— has few inland towns of importance. San German, 
in the southwest, not far from the bay of Cabo Rojo, 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 203 

is one of the principal of these. This is an old town, 
almost as ancient as San Juan, and is the centre of a 
district containing some 20,000 people, formerly very 
productive, but now less so. The town, of about 8000 
population, stands on a hill near the river Guanajibo, 
possesses a seminary, hospital, and other institutions, 
and has three plazas, on one of which is an antique 
Dominican convent and a church of some pretension. 

Some twenty miles west of Ponce, with which it is 
connected by railway, lies the town of Yauco, one of 
the first to be occupied by American troops. Some- 
what farther to the east lies Coamo, also occupied by 
General Miles's forces; and north of Guayama is the 
village of Cayey, which was about being attacked when 
news reached camp of the signing of the peace pro- 
tocol. In the hill country north of these positions is 
the town of Aibonito, on the military road across the 
island, which the Spanish forces had strongly fortified. 
A fierce and sanguinary battle at this point was 
checked by the news of the protocol. 

Among the other highland villages are Aguas 
Buenas, in the midst of coffee fields and fruit farms; 
Cidra, notable for its fine forest scenery; and the cen- 
trally located Barros, in a coffee and grazing district. 
Adjuntas, the southern end of General Roy Stone's 
military highway, has an elevated situation, cofifee and 
fruit farms covering the neighboring ridges and many 
streams flowing through the valleys. Utuado, at its 
other extremity, has a similarly attractive mountain 
situation. Aguada claims an antiquity running back 
to 151 1. It has a large sugar-grinding plant; as also 
has Afiasco, the central point in a very productive 
region. Bayamon has a small iron-works and a re- 



204 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

finery of petroleum, Caguas has lime and marble quar- 
ries, and Rio Piedras boasts a health resort known as 
La Convalecencia. The mountain village of Harmi- 
gueros, near San German, is notable for possessing 
the shrine of Montserrat, once a place of pilgrimage 
not only for the people of the island, but for those of 
other islands ranging from St. Thomas to Martinique 
and Curasao. 



VI. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

THE SPANISH CLASS. 

The upper class of the people of Porto Rico, who 
still rejoice in the name of Spaniards, despite the fact 
that they are the descendants of military settlers of a 
century or two ago, keep up all the pride of hidalgos, 
and form a distinctive class of the population which 
scrupulously avoids any mingling of blood with the 
gibaros. What wealth is possessed by the natives is 
in their hands, and they have long sedulously main- 
tained the opinions and prejudices of their Spanish 
ancestry, so that there is little community of feeHng 
between them and the lower people. 

This class is the only one on the island that has any- 
thing beyond the merest rudiments of education. The 
professions and the commercial and planting indus- 
tries are largely in their hands, and many of them are 
wealthy, while they are generally well-to-do. 

They are a good-looking people, and one that en- 
joys life to the utmost. The ladies are usually hand- 
some, refined in manners, and amiable in disposition, 
though living in the seclusion prescribed for the sex 
in Spanish countries generally. They have regular 
features, large, swimming black eyes, and bright and 
alert expression. In form they are small, and are 
noted for their small hands and feet. In dress they 
seek to follow the styles of Paris, though usuallv a 
year or two behind date. 

The men of this class — as, indeed, the islanders in 

205 



2o6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

general, from planter to beggar — are gamblers by 
nature; the habit being common to all the people, 
many of whom squander their substance in games of 
chance. The lottery, cock-fighting, and other gam- 
bling devices serve as ready means with numbers of 
them to dispose of their last dollars. The people, in- 
deed, are fond of amusements of all kinds; steady 
devotion to business being the one thing to which they 
are not addicted. 

In regard to food and drink, what has been said 
concerning the Cubans will apply here ; though some- 
thing may be said about their fondness for beer, which 
they prefer to any other drink. Beer, despite its very 
high price, is used daily in the house as a tonic before 
meals; and it is also used at parties and festivals, at 
the theatres, balls, etc., no other drink being so much 
in demand. In 1896, there were imported $146,000 
worth of bottled beer, to which we may add at least 
$200,000 worth which is smuggled every year into the 
island. A brewery on the island, which will probably 
soon be established by American capital, must, by 
lowering the price, greatly increase the demand. 

THE PEASANT CLASS. 

In the country the lower class is mainly engaged in 
farming occupations, doing no more work than they 
can well avoid, and living as nearly in a state of nature 
as the laws permit. Clothing here, as in Cuba, is not 
wasted on children until they are ten or more years of 
age. Nature is so prolific that no great amount of 
labor is needed to obtain the means of living. Those 
of them who work as laborers on the coffee planta- 
tions receive for pay fifty plantains a day. After feed- 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 207 

ing his family on these, the laborer carries the rest to 
market, devoting one day in the week to this, and car- 
rying his small stock often as many as twenty miles, 
as much, perhaps, to enjoy the pleasures of the town 
as to sell his goods. As regards the condition of the 
laborers on the sugar estates, we have already spoken. 

The farming peasantry, though indolent, are quick- 
witted and sagacious, fond of eating and drinking, and 
rather free in their morals. They are natively hos- 
pitable, and the traveller can always look for a warm 
welcome and a share of their best. They live in the 
simplest manner, their cabins being thatched with 
palm-leaves and often open at the sides, the mild 
climate calling for no greater shelter. If there is a 
door it stands open day and night. They have no 
dread of thieves, for they possess nothing worth steal- 
ing, — two or three bark hammocks, a few pots and 
calabash shells, some game-cocks, and a machete 
forming the bulk of their movable property. 

The small planters constitute a considerable propor- 
tion of the population, and by their pre-emption of the 
land have prevented it from falling into the hands of 
the monopolizing sugar planters. As long ago as 
1835, there were, according to Colonel Flinter, some 
1300 small sugar planters and vegetable raisers, — in 
his view the best part of the population, — and nearly 
18,000 (now about 21,000) small proprietors raising 
cattle and provisions. 

These people he characterizes as resembling the 
peasantry of Ireland, — ready to fight on very small 
provocation, yet proverbially hospitable and polite to 
strangers, with the " remarkable, underlying, inbred 
Spanish politeness." They are, as we have said, nor- 



2o8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

mally indolent; their possessions consisting of a few 
coffee bushes and a plantain grove, an acre or so in 
corn and sweet potatoes, a cow, a horse, and other 
small possessions. Thus provided with food plants 
that need little care and attention, the gibaro spends 
most of his time at home swinging in a hammock, 
smoking, and strumming the strings of his guitar. 
When he goes abroad, dressed in a clean shirt, cotton 
jacket, and check pantaloons, (his head covered with 
a wide straw hat, and mounted on a half-fed and over- 
worked horse, with a long sword protruding from his 
baskets, he is one of the happiest and most indepen- 
dent of beings. Whether his destination be the mass, 
a dance, or a cock-fight, it is all one to him, each being 
a pleasant variation from the monotony of every-day 
life. It is evident from all this that there is much room 
for improvement in the customs of the gibaro, and 
this may come with improved education and the stim- 
ulus of American education. These easy-going peas- 
antry are now citizens of the United States, which 
means something more than being subjects of Spain. 
A marked change has come over the social condi- 
tion of the people of Porto Rico since a century and 
a half ago. Then there were no towns, aside from the 
few seaports, and the sparsely settled people of the 
island came together only on feast-days at the central 
points of their several parishes. Their huts were of 
the rudest, and the calabash almost their only utensil, 
an empty bottle being kept as an heirloom in the 
family. At present more than half the population 
dwell in towns and villages, and their greater pros- 
perity has enabled them to obtain many more con- 
veniences. What they still need is education, with an 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 209 

advanced conception of the needs and dignity of 
civilized life. In this respect time may bring about a 
great improvement in their condition and aspirations. 
We have already spoken of the status of the colored 
population of the island, and nothing further seems 
called for. Both as regards whites and blacks, what 
has been said concerning the manners and customs of 
the Cubans applies in large measure to the Porto 
Ricans, who are of the same race and have been ex- 
posed to much the same influences. For this reason 
it is unnecessary to go here into further detail. 



VIL AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES* 

FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 

Porto Rico possesses a soil of the greatest fertility, 
equal, if not superior, to that of any other island of the 
Antilles, and perhaps the best of all for the general 
purposes of the farmer. None of the islands except 
Cuba yields as much sugar to the acre, and no other 
is so widely cultivated or produces such a diversity of 
crops. While there are extensive plantations devoted 
to the production of sugar, coffee, and tobacco, the 
land is not monopolized by these large enterprises as 
elsewhere, but in great part is held by small farmers, 
and much of it devoted to the growth of food plants 
for home consumption. 

The soil of the mountain regions consists of a red 
clay, colored by iron peroxide, while that of the val- 
leys is black in color and less compact in texture. The 
poorest land is in the coast regions, where there are 
large tracts of sandy soil. These, however, while not 
very fertile, are capable of some degree of culture; 
nearly the whole island, in fact, being susceptible of 
cultivation. Yet much of the soil is devoted to grazing 
purposes, there being immense pastures in the north- 
ern and eastern districts covered with nutritious 
grasses. 

The forest growth, which once covered nearly the 
whole island, still extended over a great part of its sur- 
face a century ago, the process of clearing not becom- 

2IO 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 211 

ing active until within the nineteenth century. Since 
then the land has been rapidly cleared, it being needed 
for agricultural purposes by the steadily increasing 
population. The primeval forest growth is, in conse- 
quence, now confined to the summit regions of the 
mountains. As a result of the recent date of its utili- 
zation, the soil retains much of its original fertility, 
and has not yet begun to demand manures as a re- 
quisite preliminary to crop bearing. The provision 
made by nature during the long centuries of the past 
still suffices in most instances. 

The rapid denudation of the forest-covered land was 
far from satisfactory to the colonial authorities, who 
made a strenuous effort for the preservation of the 
woodlands, passing a law under which every one who 
cut down a tree was required to plant three in its 
place. But this edict seems to have become largely 
a dead letter, the needs of the farmers proving too 
urgent to be controlled by the wisdom of the legisla- 
tors. 

As the island now appears, with its broad stretches 
of rich pasture lands, its gently rising mountain ter- 
races, its prolific fertility, and its great variety of tropi- 
cal scenery, embracing groves of beautiful palms and 
fruit trees and a multitude of undulating streams, it is 
unsurpassed in its attractions to the lover of landscape 
eflfects and In the abundance of its agricultural possi- 
bilities. The latter, however, are far from being de- 
veloped. The peasant manages to live with as little 
labor as possible, merely scratching the soil and trust- 
ing to its prolific returns to support him almost with- 
out work. There are on the island more than 20,000 
of these small family holdings, devoted to the raising 



212 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

of provisions and cattle, with perhaps a httle sugar; 
a kind of cultivation not likely soon to exhaust the 
land, since it does not trespass largely on its powers. 
No more energetic cultivation than this can be looked 
for from the small land-holders of tropical islands, with 
their enervating climates and the ease of living with 
little labor. While the land is divided as it is at 
present, even American energy is not likely to stimu- 
late the farming population to greater activity. On 
the other hand, the increased returns from large land- 
holding and more scientific agriculture might be cor- 
related with a serious diminution of the independence 
and happiness of the people. 

As regards the distribution of the soil for agricul- 
tural purposes, the last census, that of 1887, yielded 
the following particulars. The larger estates num- 
bered 433 devoted to sugar-cane and 361 to coffee. 
Of cattle farms there were 240; of tobacco farms, 66; 
of small coffee farms, 4181; and of general farms, 
4376. What were designated as small fruit farms em- 
braced the large number of i6,( 



FARM CROPS. 

The estates for the cultivation of sugar-cane lie 
mostly on the lowland plains and the lower slopes of 
the hill country, and are remarkably proHfic in their 
yield, the annual crop averaging about 6000 pounds 
to the acre, a yield superior to that of any other of the 
West India islands with the exception of the best lands 
of Cuba. The product of sugar per acre is about three 
hogsheads, and this is obtained without the use of 
fertilizers. The grinding is done in large mills central 
to the sugar districts, there being one of these at the 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 213 

village of Aiiasco, another at Aguado, and others else- 
where, eight such plants being enumerated in the last 
census returns. Many of the mills of Porto Rico, how- 
ever, are of the old-fashioned, obsolete character, — the 
mills varying from the antique bullock-power aflfair 
or a small concern run by water-power to the large 
steam-worked ingenio, with its electric lights and 
motors, and the latest and best sugar-making ma- 
chinery. The simplest processes, however, have 
hitherto been the prevailing ones, and few of the mills 
are thoroughly modernized in methods. Nothing need 
here be said concerning the sugar cultivation, as its 
methods do not dififer from those in use in Cuba. 

The large cane plantations have been hitherto nearly 
all owned by Spaniards, many of whom resided in 
Spain. Year after year these great estates have 
yielded large crops of sugar at a very low cost in labor; 
but nearly all of this has been sold abroad, and the 
great sum of the proceeds retained in Spain. The 
result has been that the apparent balance of trade in 
favor of the island has been an actual balance against 
it, a state of afifairs that will now probably be reformed. 

Of Porto Rican products, however, the leading one 
is cofTee, to which about 122,000 acres are devoted: 
while but half of this area, or 6t,ooo acres, is assigned 
to sugar, and tobacco, the third important export crop, 
occupies little over 2000 acres. The weight of coflfee 
sent abroad averages from 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 
pounds per annum; the island product being a mild 
coffee of superior flavor, and one which is in high 
favor in Spain and Italy and on the island of Cuba. 

Coffee, as we have seen in the case of Cuba, de- 
mands a more elevated situation than that needed for 



214 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

sugar, the highland clearings, usually above 600 feet 
of elevation, being given to this crop. The finest 
plantations are in the south and west of the island. 
The Arabian cofifee does best at a height of from 1500 
to 3000 feet; but the Liberian cofifee, which has been 
recently introduced, will grow in the lowlands. The 
latter variety is more hardy and less subject to the 
scale insect than the Arabian, and is more prolific, 
yielding sometimes from three to eight pounds per 
tree. The ordinary average yield is about one pound 
to a tree, while the yield per acre varies, according to 
the number of trees planted and the fertility of the 
soil, from 600 to 1200 pounds. 

The shade deemed requisite for the cofifee plant in 
its young state is obtained from banana, plantain, and 
other fruit trees, while large trees are planted to pro- 
tect the tender growth from the wind. As the plants 
are set out in rows at widths of ten to twenty feet, the 
spaces between are utilized for the planting of yams, 
sweet potatoes, and other vegetable products. The 
cofifee trees, if allowed their full growth, will attain a 
height of from thirty to forty feet. For convenience 
in picking, they are kept cut down to six or eight feet, 
as the best berries grow at the top. Vigorous pruning 
is an advantage, as it prevents the strength being 
given to wood-making and increases the yield of fruit. 
It cannot be said that the methods of cofifee culture 
in Porto Rico are all they should be; this plant, like 
everything grown on the island, being left too much 
to the care of nature. With intelligent culture, the 
quantity and quality of the crop might be considerably 
improved. 

Tobacco has hitherto been given comparatively lit- 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 215 

tie attention, though it is a crop which grows luxuri- 
antly and yields leaf of good quality, not falling far 
short of the famous Cuban product. The peculiar soil 
of the Vuelta Abajo is, indeed, closely simulated in 
many of the Porto Rican valleys, — a light, sandy soil, 
rich in lime, potash, and vegetable humus. It is, in 
fact, not easy to distinguish between Cuban and Porto 
Rican tobacco, as most of the crop raised here goes 
to Havana, where it reappears as a constituent of the 
famous *' genuine Havana cigars." 

The tobacco farmers of Porto Rico, however, are 
careless in the curing of their leaf, being too indolent 
to give it the necessary time and labor. A marked im- 
petus was given to the growth of Porto Rican tobacco 
by the recent insurrection in Cuba, which cut ofif the 
home supply and largely increased the price. To pre- 
serve the impetus thus gained, there is needed but 
industry and intelligence, the use of good Cuban seed 
for planting, and proper care in raising the plant and 
curing the leaf. The native indolence needs to be in 
a measure overcome, and capital and judgment in- 
vested, to give the tobacco of Porto Rico a reputation 
approaching or equalling that of the best Cuban leaf. 

Another food plant which can be profitably grown 
in Porto Rico is cacao, which yields the bean from 
which comes the delicious and nutritive chocolate. 
This plant is native to the island, growing well in the 
coast country, but best in upland valleys from 300 to 
500 feet above sea-level. The tree reaches a height of 
twenty or thirty feet; its fruit pods, which grow di- 
rectly from the limbs and trunk, containing thirty or 
forty seeds enveloped in a sweetish pulp. The general 
cultivation resembles that of coffee, though the trees 



2i6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

are slower in reaching maturity, not attaining full bear- 
ing under seven years. They similarly need shade 
and wind breaks. The annual yield varies from two 
to eight pounds per tree. 

The staple food of the laboring population is de- 
rived from three plants, of which rice is one of the 
most important. This is largely cultivated, a moun- 
tain variety being raised which grows freely in the 
central hill country, and has the advantage of needing 
neither irrigation nor special watering of any kind. 
Plantain, the second of these crops, is grown every- 
where, and, baked in the immature stage, serves as 
the bread of the people. Yauchia (Caladium esculen- 
tum) is a root plant, somewhat resembling the yam, 
but totally different from it botanically. It has an 
acrid taste, but this is overcome by boiling or roasting. 

The other vegetables include the sweet potato, yam, 
bean, maize, etc., and the fruits are the banana, mango, 
pineapple, mammee, custard-apple, cocoa-nut, guava, 
aguacate, orange, lemon, and various others. Guavas 
are very plentiful and, as in Cuba, are largely made 
into confections. The orange grows everywhere, 
almost in a wild state, the fruit being very sweet, with 
a fine, delicately acid pulp. Lemons are equally abun- 
dant, growing wild and ripening the year round. The 
fruit is small but very juicy. The pineapple grows in 
an almost wild state, and the island fruits include a 
variety of cantaloupe which has perhaps no equal in 
the world in quality and flavor. 

Scientific agriculture is almost unknown in the 
island, particularly in the case of fruit-raising, which 
has never been an industry, the plants being practi- 
cally left to grow wild. Fertilizers are unknown; but 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 217 

as yet the soil does not demand them, having appa- 
rently a recuperative power within itself. 

Of plants of possible future industrial value may be 
mentioned cotton, which was grown to a considerable 
extent during the American civil war, but is not now 
an industry, though the cotton-plant may be seen 
growing wild in many places. It yields a fibre notable 
for length, whiteness, and tenacity. The leading crops 
of the island will, of course, continue to be sugar, 
coffee, tobacco, and rice, and these are likely to be- 
come greatly developed and to grow much more 
profitable in the future. 

LXVE-STOCK, 

The industries of Porto Rico include cattle-raising, 
which is conducted on a large scale on the exten- 
sive pastures of the island. These, which occur prin- 
cipally in the low plains of the north and east, sur- 
pass those of the other Antilles for grazing purposes, 
being covered with a nutritious leguminous plant 
called locally malahojilla (scientifically, Hymenachne 
striatum), which is of high excellence as a cattle food. 
The beeves of Porto Rico are, in consequence, much 
superior to those of Cuba; their meat being con- 
sumed not only on the island but exported in large 
quantities to the Lesser Antilles. St. Thomas, Mar- 
tinique, Guadeloupe, and other islands are largely 
dependent on Porto Rico alike for meat and for work- 
oxen, while some of the cattle are sent as far as Bar- 
badoes.. Cuba also receives part of the export. In 
addition to cattle, sheep and horses are raised, the 
latter being of a small but hardy breed. Efforts have 
been made to improve the stock by the introduction 



2iS OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

of horses from the United States, though as yet with 
no marked results. 

The island has the large area of over 1,100,000 acres 
devoted to pasturage, while the number of cattle and 
other farm animals was computed in October, 1896, 
as follows: Oxen and cows, 303,612; horses, 65,751; 
mules, 4467; asses, 717; sheep, 2055; goats, 5779; 
swine, 13,411. 

Poultry are kept in large numbers on the farms, 
being as much in favor as in Cuba. The same may be 
said of the bee, which takes its place among the most 
active workers of the land, feeding on its many blos- 
soms, and obtaining a supply of sweets from the sugar- 
mills. Beeswax and honey rank among the exports. 



VIII. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 

ARTICLES OF MANUFACTURE. 

The results of the productive industries of Porto 
Rico, aside from those of agriculture, may be dismissed 
in a few words. The principal of these arise directly 
from agriculture, being the production of sugar and 
molasses from the cane and the preparation of cofifee 
for market. There are also in the cities manufactories 
of cigars, chocolate, soap, matches, and straw hats. 
The island possesses a few small iron foundries, and 
there is a considerable distillation of rum from the 
molasses yield; but its manufactures, as a whole, are 
scarcely worth consideration. 

San Juan has a few industries, including a small 
refinery owned by the Standard Oil Company, for the 
refining of petroleum brought in the crude state from 
the United States. It also produces on a small scale 
matches, soap, brooms, trunks, and travelling cases of 
a cheap kind. There are ice-machines in operation for 
the supply of the city. Ponce has little that can be 
called manufacturing, and the same may be said of 
the other cities. The only artisans, as a rule, are those 
connected with the building trades, together with 
tailors, shoemakers, and others engaged in necessary 
local occupations. 

COMMERCE. 

The principal exports of Porto Rico consist of 
sugar, coffee, molasses, cattle, and tobacco. There 

2x9 



220 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

were exported in 1896, according to a report from 
the British consul, the following quantities of goods: 

Sugar 54.205 tons. 

Coffee 26,655 tons. 

Molasses I4.740 tons. 

Tobacco 1*039 tons. 

Cattle 3,178 head. 

Hides 169 tons. 

Timber 30 tons. 

The report of a Porto Rican commercial authority, 
the '* Estadistica General del Comercio Exterior," 
gives for 1895 the following Ust of values of the prin- 
cipal exports and imports: 

EXPORTS. 

Articles. Value. 

Coffoe ^558,789,788 

Sugar 3.747,891 

Tobacco 646,556 

Honey 517.746 

IMPORTS. 

Articles. Value. 

Rice $2,180,004 

Fish 1,591,418 

Meat and lard 1,223,104 

Flour 982,222 

Olive oil 327,801 

Cheese 324.^37 

Vegetables 192,918 

Jerked beef 133,616 

Other provisions 171,322 

Tobacco (manufactured) 663,464 

Wine 305,656 

Soap 238,525 

Iron 224,206 

Coal 119,403 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 221 

The countries engaged in this commerce, and the 
value of articles received from and sent to each, were 
as follows: 

Country. Imports. Exports. 

Spain $8,572,549 $5,824,694 

Great Britain 1,765,574 1,144,555 

United States 1,506,512 1,833,544 

Germany 1,368,595 1,181,396 

France 251,984 1,376,087 

Cuba 808,283 3,610,936 

Lesser Antilles 1,700,872 625,010 

Other countries 371,485 828,709 

$16,354,854 $16,424,931 

If, now, we consider the trade with the United States 
alone, we find the exports from Porto Rico during 
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, to have been as 
follows : 

Sugar 81,582,810 pounds $1,707,318 

Molasses 2,256,073 gallons 520,275 

Coffee 159,649 pounds 24,101 

Fruits and nuts 10,079 

Perfumery, cosmetics, etc. 8,784 

All other articles .... 26,099 

Total $2,296,656 

Imports of Porto Rico from the United States: 

Breadstuffs (flour, com, etc.) 5521,357 

Provisions : 

Hog products 599,513 

Butter, cheese, etc 27,447 

Beans and peas 44,244 

Wood {nianufactu7-ed) : 

Boards, joists, shooks, etc .' . 251,635 

Household furniture 16,518 

Other articles of wood 1 1,472 



222 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Coal JS!78,62S 

Candles 4,188 

Carriages, street cars, etc 7.879 

Chemicals, drugs, and dyes 56,184 

Cotton fabrics 26,543 

Flax, hemp, jute (manufactured) 18,497 

Oils 30.732 

Paper and paper goods 15,423 

All other articles 236,504 

31,946,761 

Of the various classes of goods received from com- 
mercial nations by Porto Rico in recent years, the 
United States ranked first only in the classes of provi- 
sions and wood and its manufactures. In the class of 
hardware and machinery it was second to England 
and Germany, except in scales and boilers, in which 
it stood first. In paper and books it was somewhat 
surpassed by Spain. England and Germany far sur- 
passed this country in metals and manufactures 
thereof, except in the items of wire and tinware. In 
oils, drugs, and chemicals the United States ranked 
next to Spain; but in earthenware, stone', glass, and 
porcelain it occupied only the fifth or sixth place, 
Germany and Spain being in the lead. In cotton, 
hemp, jute, and manufactures thereof this country oc- 
cupied an insignificant position, except in the item of 
cordage, England and Spain leading. Its trade in 
wool and woollen goods was as nothing compared 
with England and Spain, and in silk goods with France 
and Spain. In the items of leather and grease Spain 
had nearly the entire trade, while in miscellaneous 
goods the only American trade of any importance was 
in jewelry, rubber, oil-cloth, and artificial flowers. 
Codfish, one of the principal food substances imported 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 223 

into Porto Rico, is received mainly from Nova Scotia, 
whose dealers find it their best market, many of them 
taking their pay in molasses. 

FINANCES, 

The island of Porto Rico, previous to its change of 
relations to Spain from a colony to a province, was 
using American currency; but shortly afterwards the 
Spanish government, finding the value of silver coin 
declining, decided that it would be profitable to meet 
its obligations in Porto Rico in this depreciated silver. 
Mexican dollars were employed for this purpose, by 
the use of which the currency, by 1878, was brought 
to a silver basis, the gold and the Spanish dollars dis- 
appearing. The heavy payments for crops made a 
redundant currency, a large portion of which was 
shipped away. 

The most recent dealing with the currency was in 
1895, when the Spanish government took up all the 
Mexican and Spanish coins in circulation, substituting 
for them coins prepared expressly for the island. 
These bear on one side the Spanish coat of arms *and 
the words " Isla de Puerto Rico," and on the other the 
face of the boy king of Spain. They include the peso, 
corresponding in appearance with our dollar, and 
smaller coins equivalent to forty, twenty, ten, and five 
cents, with minor copper coins. 

These coins represent little more than their bullion 
value, the Spanish government having made no at- 
tempt to maintain their face value, and they pass freely 
at the rate of $1.75 for $1.00 in American coin, while 
exchanges have been made at two for one. This coin- 
age aggregates 6,000,000 pesos, while the banl^ of the 



224 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

island have added to it about 1,000,000 in paper, partly 
at par with the silver and partly at a discount. But 
this has no general circulation. The rate which has 
been fixed by the United States for the Spanish peso 
in Cuba — sixty cents as compared with the American 
dollar — has been also established as a standard of value 
for Porto Rico. 

The Spanish system of taxation needs a radical 
change, and it will undoubtedly be necessary to remit 
some of the unpopular taxes now prevailing, and raise 
a considerable share of the revenue by taxes upon 
spirits and tobacco, now scarcely taxed at all. A tax 
on spirits would cause no hardship to the people, and 
in connection with the remission of other taxes would 
prove a popular movement. 

There are only five banks in Porto Rico, of which 
San Juan possesses two. Private banking houses do 
a large share of the business, all the leading mercantile 
houses engaging in foreign banking. The Spanish 
Bank (Banco Espaiiol de Puerto Rico) is the largest 
institution of the kind, and has facilities extending 
over the whole island. The second in importance is 
the Banco Territorial y Agricola. Ponce possesses 
the Deposito y Ahorro Poncefio. All these do a safe 
and good business. There is a savings-bank in San 
Juan, the Ahorro Colectivo, which consists of a co- 
operative society, its purpose being to educate the 
working-class in the principles of economy. 

The normal rate of interest in the island varies from 
ten to fourteen per cent., and a loan at nine per cent. 
is considered very low. Mortgages, when all taxes, 
charges, and fees are paid, cost almost twenty per cent, 
to negotiate; and some planters are now paying nearly 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 225 

fifty per cent, on mortgage loans, through various ex- 
actions. The taxes laid on agriculture under Spanish 
rule amounted to from seventeen to twenty-five per 
cent, of the profits of the planters. Under all these 
burdens the planters made money, and, if relieved of 
these unjust exactions, there seems no reason why 
they should not become very prosperous. The island 
of Porto Rico has entered upon a new and promising 
stage of its existence, and as a part of the United 
States, with just laws and intelligent enterprise, we 
may safely look for a great development of its re- 
sources and a marked increase in its prosperity. 

FUTURE PROSPECTS. 

By the terms of the treaty signed December 10, 
1898, Porto Rico was definitely ceded to the United 
States and ceased to be a province of Spain. This 
change of ownership has made a radical change in its 
commercial relations, putting an end to the preferen- 
tial duties under which its industrial dependence upon 
Spain was maintained, and permitting the estabhsh- 
ment of equitable commercial regulations. Under the 
new conditions, the United States must gain a much 
closer business relation with Porto Rico — now a part 
of itself — than heretofore, receiving a larger propor- 
tion of its exports and sending it a fuller supply of 
bread-stuflfs and manufactured goods. More liberal 
educational institutions cannot but have their eflfect in 
reducing the deep ignorance of the people, and with 
education must come new wants and demands and 
increased energy and Intelligence in production. 

Engineers and representatives of capital have al- 
ready sought the island in numbers, with the view of 

15 



226 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

building new railroad and electric lines, and making 
other improvements; while the agents of American 
business houses are actively on the lookout for trade. 
Agencies for lumber firms, glass manufactories, and 
other industries have been established in the principal 
cities, and there are excellent opportunities for the 
profitable investment of capital aUke in agriculture 
and manufactures. 

The great demand for beer, even at its former high 
rates, has been mentioned, and breweries will un- 
doubtedly be among the first of the new industries of 
the island. Tanneries are also likely to be established 
in view of the large cattle product. Those now ex- 
isting produce only the poorest quality of sole leather, 
soft leather being imported mainly from France. 
Tanneries using improved methods and machinery 
would soon control the leather trade of the island, 
which is capable of being largely developed. 

Nearly all shoes are imported, and shoe factories 
would prove profitable investments. The same may be 
said of cotton- and paper-mills, glass works, and 
several other manufacturing industries. Steam laun- 
dries are needed in the large cities, the prices now 
charged for hand-laundry work being very high. Ice 
plants are needed, there being none at present except 
in San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez. The high price 
charged for ice almost prohibits its use. 

Candles are used only by a portion of the inhabi- 
tants, the poor people preferring the cheap cocoa-nut 
oil to candles at five cents each. Those now used are 
imported from Spain and Belgium, and a candle fac- 
tory on the island would reduce the price more than 
half. Lumber machinery is greatly needed, building 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 227 

operations being very expensive from the fact that 
planing, grooving and sawing of lumber are now all 
done by hand. There is an abundance of fine building 
and cabinet woods, but much lumber is imported, 
wood-working machinery being almost unknown upon 
the island. 

The same may be said of bricks. Splendid brick 
clay is to be found everywhere, principally red and 
yellow in color; yet at present there are only a few 
brick-works, and these very primitive in their methods. 
The bricks made are of the roughest kind, and are 
concealed in buildings by plaster and painting. 
American pressed bricks would be highly appreciated. 

Such are some of the needs of the island in relation 
to manufactures. It will undoubtedly continue mainly 
agricultural, the bulk of its manufactured goods being 
imported, and the demand for these from the United 
States will no doubt largely increase under the new 
tariff regulations, while cheapened goods cannot fail 
to add greatly to the total demand. 



SECTION III. 
HAWAII. 

• •• 

I. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

In January of the year 1778, the Resolution and 
Discovery, the exploring ships of the famous Captain 
Cook, first came in sight of the outlying islands of the 
Hawaiian group, and were visited by the wondering 
natives in their canoes. There is reason to believe 
that Spanish navigators had visited these islands at a 
much earlier date; but they kept their discoveries to 
themselves, and the islands now for the first time be- 
came definitely known to the civilized world. His 
discovery proved a fatal one to Captain Cook. The 
visitors were looked upon, at first, by the natives as 
gods, but were soon found to be men, who treated 
them and their religion with indignity, going so far as 
to burn their idols. As a result, a controversy arose, 
which ended in the death of the discoverer, who was 
stabbed by one of the incensed islanders. 

The Hawaiians were found to have made some 
progress in government, each island having its king, 
who ruled with despotic sway. Another step in politi- 
cal organization was soon to be made. Vancouver, 
one of Cook's companions, returned to the islands in 
1792, and found Kamehameha, a subordinate chief on 
228 




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HISTORICAL SKETCH. 229 

his former visit, now ruler over the whole island of Ha- 
waii. In the following years this ambitious chieftain, 
a man of decided warlike genius and force of char- 
acter, inspired his people with his own sentiments, and 
invaded and made himself monarch of the whole island 
group. 

Alert of mind and keen of wit, the new monarch 
induced Vancouver to build him a vessel on the Euro- 
pean model, to which in the succeeding years he added 
numerous others, obtained fire-arms from the trading 
whites, drilled and trained his men, and easily over- 
came his brave but less progressive opponents. He 
organized a standing army, built armories and bat- 
teries, and erected at Honolulu a strong fort mounted 
with heavy guns. 

The Hawaiian king used his absolute power wisely 
and well. Under his strict rule anarchy was repressed, 
theft and oppression were prohibited, and peace and 
security assured; the conquered chiefs being kept at 
his court, nominally as counsellors, really as hostages 
for their good behavior. The arts of peace-^-as agri- 
culture, commerce, and the useful handicrafts — were 
fostered; horses were introduced, and the Hawaiians 
soon became bold and skilful riders; trade with 
foreign lands was encouraged, the king deriving his 
revenue largely from the active commerce in sandal- 
wood. 

White men were encouraged to settle on the islands; 
Kamehameha, while keeping up the native customs 
himself, providing European houses and furniture for 
his foreign guests, among whom were several physi- 
cians and many artisans. His own subjects were in- 
duced to study the arts of the whites, and numbers of 



230 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

them became expert as carpenters, coopers, black- 
smiths, and tailors. 

Among the visitors were no missionaries. Van- 
couver had made earnest endeavors to instruct the 
natives, and' had been requested by the king to send 
them religious teachers from England.^ But this re- 
quest was not complied with, and the natives remained 
idol-worshippers until after the death of their con- 
quering monarch in 1819. 

Yet, though Kamehameha maintained the qld rites, 
the people had for years been losing faith in their 
wooden gods, and in the repressive custom of the tabu, 
so wide-spread in the Pacific islands. Under this cus- 
tom, any article declared sacred by king or high-priest 
dared not be touched on peril of life. In particular, 
women were prohibited from eating at the same table 
with men, or even from eating the food left uncon- 
sumed by men. They were also forbidden to eat meat. 
The punishment for breaking the tabu was death, 
often with torture. 

The decease of Kamehameha was followed by a re- 
markable event. Liholiho, tlie new king, a weak man 
as compared with his father, was associated in the 
government with Kaahumanu, the second wife of 
Kamehameha, and a woman of decision and resolu- 
tion. The whites violated the tabu with impunity, and 
induced native women to do so with them; yet the 
gods took no heed of this desecration. Kaahumanu 
thereupon, losing faith in the old custom, determined 
upon a decisive act, and with some difficulty induced 
the vacillating king to accede to her wishes. A formal 
feast was given, to which some of the high chiefs were 
invited. As soon as the meats prepared for the men 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 231 

were cut up, the king bade his astonished attendants 
carry some of these doubly-forbidclen viands to the 
tables reserved for the women, and even seated him- 
self among them and ate with them. Cries of amaze- 
ment succeeded. The shout, "The tabu is broken!" 
resounded on all sides. Several chiefs, who had been 
previously won over, followed the king's example, and 
the tidings of the radical act spread rapidly through 
the kingdom. The high-priest, who supported the 
king, resigned his office; the king announced that 
both idols and priests were abolished, and the wooden 
gods, which for ages had been worshipped, were 
hurled from their high estate and committed to the 
flames. 

This act, of a people spontaneously abandoning its 
ancient religious faith, without instigation from abroad, 
was one without precedent in the history of mankind. 
The Hawaiians left themselves by their own act with- 
out a religion, and celebrated with a jubilee their de- 
liverance from an oppressive superstition. Their radi- 
cal act was not accomplished without opposition. The 
party of the priests flew to arms and fought for their 
gods. A pitched battle succeeded, the last on the 
islands, which ended in the defeat of the idolaters and 
the suppression of idolatry. 

This loss of a religion was quickly followed by the 
advent of a new one. In 1820, a par^y of missionaries, 
coming from the United States, reached the islands. 
They found a virgin field for their efforts, and at once 
went earnestly to work. In addition to their religious 
teachings they established schools, and with such 
effect that in less than forty years the whole people 
were taught to read and write, to cipher and to sew. 



232 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The nearly naked and sensual savages of the preceding 
era adopted clothing and strict marriage rites, accepted 
Christianity, and became educated and civilized, a re- 
markable change coming over them within a century's 
extent. 

In 1824, the new king, crowned as Kamehameha 
II., set out on a voyage round the world, stopping at 
Rio Janeiro, and reaching London, where both he and 
his wife took sick with measles and died. His brother, 
a boy of ten, succeeded as Kamehameha III., Kaahu- 
manu ruling as regent. Under the succeeding kings 
the precedent established by Kamehameha I. was 
maintained, a woman continuing to hold the second 
place in the government, her assent to all public acts 
being necessary. 

The succeeding events in Hawaii had largely to do 
with the efforts of the missionaries to maintain the 
puritanical code of morals they had instituted, and the 
attempts of dissolute settlers and visiting sailors to 
undo their work and bring back the old easy virtue of 
the Hawaiian women. Dissensions also arose with 
some Roman Catholic missionaries who had made 
their way into the islands. The result of the latter diffi- 
culty was a visit from the French frigate Artemise in 
1839, whose commander, by threats of bombardment, 
forced the government to consent to the teaching of 
Catholicism, and also to the admission of French 
brandy, — the introduction of ardent spirits being pro- 
hibited by law. 

The odd mixture of religion and brandy thus 
forced upon the people had its immediate effect in in- 
undating the islands with fire-water and restoring the 
old evil of general intemperance. This the govern- 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 233 

ment now sought to restrain by a system of licenses, 
whereupon another man-of-war appeared with new 
threats and demands. 

A British frigate, the Carysfort, appeared in 1842, 
whose commander, on pretence of British interests 
being injured, indulged in such severe demands and 
threats that the helpless government ofifered to cede 
the islands to Great Britain, though under protest 
against the injustice of the proceeding. The result 
was deplorable. All legal restraint upon the evil dis- 
posed was at an end, and for five months drunkenness 
and immorality ruled supreme. 

This painful state of affairs continued until July, 
when Commodore Kearney arrived from the United 
States, and at once issued a protest against the seizure 
of the islands and treated the chiefs as independent 
princes. Immediately afterwards, Admiral Thomas, 
a British naval commander, reached the islands and 
put an instant stop to the proceedings of the captain 
of the Carysfort, reinstating the king in authority in 
the most formal manner. The date on which this took 
place, July 31, 1842, was from that day forward cele- 
brated as a day of national thanksgiving and rejoicing. 

Meanwhile, the Hawaiian monarch had sent com- 
missioners to England and France to represent the 
interests of the kingdom at the courts of those coun- 
tries. The final result was a formal recognition by 
England and France of the independence of the Ha- 
waiian Islands, and an engagement never to take pos- 
session of any part of their territory. This ended the 
difficulties, though at subsequent dates French frigates 
made oflfensive demands. 

During this period an important change had taken 



234 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

place in the Hawaiian government. Up to 1839 it 
continued an absolute despotism. But in that year the 
king, yielding to the earnest persuasions of the Ameri- 
can missionaries, came to a radical decision, signing 
a Bill of Rights for the people. On the 8th of October, 
1840, a second step was taken, — a constitution being 
given under which a system of legislative government 
was introduced. There were to be, in addition to the 
king, a House of Nobles of sixteen persons, five being 
women, and a Council of seven representatives. Later 
constitutions and codes of law were adopted in 1845 
and 1852, all under American influence, and each 
making the government more democratic than before. 
Kamehameha III. died in 1854, after a reign of 
thirty years. He was succeeded by his son Liholiho 
as Kamehameha IV. He died in 1863, and his brother 
ascended the throne as Kamehameha V. With the 
death of the latter, at the close of 1872, the line of the 
Kamehamehas became extinct. It rested with the 
legislature to elect a new sovereign by ballot, and 
Prince Lunalilo, a stepson of Kamehameha V. and a 
choice favorite of the people, was elected. Unfortu- 
nately, he had a passion for drink, and intemperance 
carried him oflf after a year's reign, another high chief, 
Kalakaua, being elected to succeed him. 

Under the new monarch the finances fell into a state 
that seriously demanded reform, and in 1887 the king 
dismissed his cabinet and granted a constitution which 
still further curtailed the power of the crown, the 
House of Nobles, formerly appointed by the king, 
being now elected by popular vote. 

Kalakaua died in 1891, and was succeeded by his 
sister Liliuokalani. During the reign of Kalakaua the 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 235 

number of foreigners in the island had largely in- 
creased, owing to the progress of sugar culture, and 
many of them, principally Americans, took part in the 
government. This state of affairs was not satisfactory 
to the new queen, who had ambitious views, and she 
sought to set aside the provisions of the constitu- 
tion. Ministers were appointed by her in disregard 
of the vote of the legislature; the interests of the 
planters were imperilled, and she finally attempted to 
annul the constitution and restore the old power of the 
crown. Among her purposes were the establishment 
of the Louisiana lottery upon the island and the im- 
portation of opium, as revenue measures, and in dis- 
regard of the fact that they had been constitutionally 
forbidden on account of their deleterious effect upon 
the people. 

These illegal measures aroused the foreign element 
in the state and gave rise to an insurrectionary move- 
ment which resulted in the dethronement of the queen 
in January, 1893. A provisional government was 
formed; United States marines and sailors were 
landed to protect the lives and property of Americans, 
and steps were taken looking towards the annexation 
of Hawaii to the United States. A treaty for this pur- 
pose was negotiated and sent to the Senate, but it was 
withdrawn by President Cleveland before action had 
been taken upon it, and the project came to an end. 

The party of the queen sought to restore her to the 
throne, but failed; and a subsequent insurrection in 
1895 led to her arrest and temporary imprisonment. 
She left the islands in 1896. A republic was pro- 
claimed on July 4, 1894, under the presidency of San- 
ford B. Dole, — of American descent, though born on 



236 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the island, — who had been at the head of the provi- 
sional government. The next event of importance 
occurred in 1897. William McKinley having suc- 
ceeded Grover Cleveland as President of the United 
States, a new treaty of annexation was prepared and 
presented to Congress. Action on this was delayed 
until 1898, when, during the Spanish-American war, 
the treaty was adopted in Congress by joint resolution, 
and was signed by the President and became law on 
July 6. The act of annexation was completed on 
August 12, 1898, when the American flag was raised 
over the government buildings at Honolulu, and Ha- 
waii became a definite part of the United States. 



n. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS- 
GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS. 

The group of islands with which we are now con- 
cerned, named the Sandwich Islands by Captain Cook, 
in honor of the Earl of Sandwich, first lord of the 
British Admiralty, but known in America by the name 
of the principal island of the group, Hawaii, stands 
almost alone in the north Pacific Ocean, at a consider- 
able distance north of the great Polynesian Archi- 
pelago, which stretches over so vast a width of the 
southern seas. Intermediate between America and 
Asia, Hawaii is 2100 miles distant from California and 
3400 from Japan, while Alaska lies 3000 miles to the 
north and New Zealand 3800 miles to the south. The 
city of Sydney, Australia, is nearly 4500 miles distant, 
and Hong-Kong, China, is 4950 miles away. The 
group thus occupies a highly important position in the 
pathway of the rapidly growing commerce of the Pa- 
cific, and must prove of the utmost value to the mer- 
chantmen of the coming age, on their way between 
the busy ports of America, Asia, Australia, and the 
multitudinous Polynesian islands. 

The Hawaiian group consists of twelve islands, most 
of them small, and four of them barren and unin- 
habited. There are in addition many islets, mostly 
barren rocks. Like Cuba and Porto Rico, the group 
lies just within the tropics, its northern boundary 
being 22° t6', north latitude. On the south it extends 

237 



238 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

to i8° 55', north latitude, while it is bounded east and 
west by 154° 40' and 160° 30', west longitude. The 
total area of the group is estimated at 6740 square 
miles, an area about 1000 square miles less than that 
of New Jersey. Of this area the large island of Hawaii 
occupies nearly two-thirds, the others being much 
smaller. 

The general direction of the group is in a line from 
southeast to northwest, Hawaii occupying the most 
southerly position. Twenty-five miles to the north- 
west of Hawaii lies Maui, a few miles distant from 
whose western coast are the small islands of Lanai and 
Kahulaui, and nine miles from its northern end the 
long, narrow island of Molokai. Twenty-three miles 
northwest of the latter is Oahu; sixty-seven miles 
from which, still to the northwest, is Kauai. The final 
island of the group is Niihau, fifteen miles west of 
Kauai. The four uninhabited islands are named 
Nihoa, Kaula, Lehua, and Molokini, to which some 
add Leyson Island, lying 800 miles to the west. The 
following table will give a conception of the compara- 
tive dimensions of these islands: 

Approximate 
Islands. Length. Width. Area. 

Miles. Miles. Square Miles. 

Hawaii lOO 90 4210 

Maui 54 25 760 

Kahulaui 12 5 63 

Lanai 20 9 150 

Molokai 35 7 270 

Oahu 35 21 600 

Kauai 30 28 590 

Niihau 20 5 97 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 239 

GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 

Geologically, the Hawaiian Islands differ radically 
from those we have hitherto considered, they being 
volcanic in origin, or only to a minor extent coralline. 
They owe their existence to a remarkable exercise of 
the earth's igneous agencies, which are still actively at 
work, for the volcanoes of Hawaii are without parallel 
upon the earth in size and energy. As a consequence, 
the rock structure is volcanic, being mainly composed 
of successive layers of lava, while the soil is made up 
of disintegrated lava, scoria, and sand of volcanic 
origin. 

Yet the coral-reef builders, so multitudinous and 
active in the Pacific waters, have had a share, though 
a small one, in the formation of these islands, whose 
shores are to some extent bordered by reefs, double 
in some instances. These appear only along a portion 
of the coast lines, and are of much smaller extent than 
those bordering the islands of the South Pacific. 
Ledges of compact limestone are found at a height of 
100 feet above sea-level, indicating ancient uplifts, due, 
perhaps, to volcanic forces. 

As may be judged from the igneous origin of the 
islands, they display a great poverty in mineral species, 
their rocks being made up of the products of eruption 
and coral growth, and consisting of basalt, lava, coral- 
rock, and sandstone. On the tops and in the interior 
of the mountains there is a variety of trachyte, and the 
bulk of the mountains seems made up of phonolites 
and graystones, forming a complete series from basalt 
to trachyte. The sands and sandstones owe their 
origin to disintegrated coral rock. The scanty list of 



240 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

mineral substances includes sulphur, pyrites, common 
s^lt, sal ammoniac, hematite, quartz, felspar, gypsum, 
copperas, nitre, limonite, hydrochloric, sulphuric, and 
sulphurous acids, and a few others, all of volcanic 
origin. 

MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 

The Hawaiian Islands are generally of considerable 
elevation, and they possess mountain peaks of great 
height. While Niihau is generally low, though with 
high cliflfs on its eastern side, the small neighboring 
island of Lehua has an elevation of looo feet, and the 
upland region of Kauai constitutes a table-land of 
4000 feet in height, reaching the sea on the west in 
a precipice 2000 feet high. In the centre of the island 
rises a basaltic mountain 5000 feet high. 

Oahu is traversed by two parallel ranges of hills, 
separated by a low plain. Of these the eastern range 
is much the longest, and is greatly broken, lateral 
spurs extending inland with deep ravines between 
them. On the ocean side a nearly vertical wall of 
rock extends for thirty miles without a break. The 
highest point on the island is the peak of Kaula, 4060 
feet, in the western range. 

The long, narrow extent of Molokai is traversed by 
a ridge of hills, with lateral spurs inclosing ravines. 
There are some lofty broken peaks at the western end, 
the greatest elevation being 3500 feet. Maui is made 
up of two mountains, connected by a sandy isthmus, 
so low that a few feet of subsidence would convert the 
island into two. The lowest of these peaks, that to the 
southeast, is 5820 feet high. Haleakala, the north- 
west mountain, is a nearly extinct volcano of extraor- 
dinary dimensions, which has an elevation of 10,032 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 241 

feet. Of the two small neighboring islands, Kahulaui 
reaches an elevation of 11 30 feet, and Lanai has a 
mountain 3000 feet high. 

Hawaii, an island of irregular triangular shape, with 
sides eighty-five, seventy-five, and sixty-five geo- 
graphical miles in length, is almost wholly made up of 
the sloping sides of its four volcanic peaks, though at 
places bold cliffs, 1000 to 3000 feet high, front the sea. 
These peaks comprise Mauna Kea (13,805 feet) on the 
north, the highest elevation in the Pacific Ocean; 
Mauna Loa (13,675 feet) on the south; Mauna Huala- 
lai (8275 feet) on the west; and Mauna Kohala (5505 
feet) on the northwest. From these lofty heights the 
land slopes gently down on all sides towards the coast, 
while between them lies a plain of many square miles 
in extent. The sides of Mauna Kea are rent by numer- 
ous deep ravines, in which flow streams, eighty-five in 
number, at depths of 1800 to 2000 feet. As the in- 
tervening ridges reach the coast in high precipices, 
this part of the island cannot be traversed without 
great labor and difficulty, it being necessary to descend 
into and ascend from the ravines by narrow and 
dangerous paths. 

VOLCANOES. 

Though the Hawaiian group is of volcanic origin, 
most of its volcanoes have become extinct; the only 
active ones remaining being those on the island of 
Hawaii; though nearly all the islands possess craters, 
some of which appear to have been active at a recent 
period. The tremendous agency by which these 
islands were elevated acted in a line extending south- 
east and northwest; some writers maintaining that 

16 



242 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the first and most vigorous force was exercised In the 
southeast, yielding the great elevations of Hawaii; 
while others hold that volcanic action began in the 
northwest, its energy culminating in Hawaii, and suc- 
cessively dying away in the other islands. 

Extinct volcanoes, of every age, size, and shape, 
are common throughout the group; and the small 
island of Molokini is merely a low-lying crater, with 
one side open to the sea. Of these ancient volcanoes 
much the most remarkable is Haleakala, on Maui, 
which forms a great dome-shaped mass of ninety miles 
circumference at base and rising with a gentle slope 
to its summit, where is presented the most stupendous 
crater upon the earth. This immense cavity has a cir- 
cumference of eighteen or twenty miles and an ex- 
treme depth of 2720 feet, its area being about sixteen 
square miles. At intervals over the bottom rise six- 
teen cones from 500 to 600 feet in height; and there 
are two great gaps in the crater walls through which 
vast floods of lava seem to have poured at a compara- 
tively modern date. 

Of the mountain elevations of Hawaii, Mauna Kea 
(White Mountain), the loftiest of all, is extinct as a 
volcano, all its lavas being ancient. The summit of 
Mauna Hualalai is covered with craters 700 to 1000 
feet wide and 300 to 500 deep, with vertical walls. On 
the sides of the mountain are more than 150 volcanic 
cones, and the mountain was in eruption as late as 
1801, when a flood of lava made its way to the coast, 
where it filled up a deep bay. 

Mauna Loa (Long Mountain) is still an active vol- 
cano, pouring out at intervals of a few years vast floods 
of lava, which occasionally reach the sea, at a distance 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 243 

of many miles. On its lofty summit is a circular 
crater, perfect in outline and 8000 feet in diameter, its 
walls being nearly vertical, with a depth of from 500 
to 600 feet. The eruption of 1843 discharged a mighty 
flood of fiery lava, which formed three streams five 
or six miles wide and more than twenty miles long. 
In that of 1859 the flow continued for two months, 
and a river of liquid rock, from one to five miles wide 
and of considerable depth, followed a winding course 
of fifty miles in length, ending at the sea. 

The most stupendous of existing volcanoes, how- 
ever, is that of Kilauea, a mountain sixteen miles to 
the southeast of Mauna Loa, and much less elevated, 
its crater being 4400 feet above the level of the sea. 
This huge depression is oval in shape, with a circum- 
ference of nine miles and a depth of 500 feet. Its 
lava-covered floor is broken by a second depression, 
approaching a mile in width, and, when empty, of 
about 1000 feet in depth. This great lake-like cavity 
is usually well filled with liquid lava, the fiery flood at 
times occupying its whole extent, boiling and tossing 
in lurid waves, and sending up fierce jets of smoke 
and flame. It rises and falls, at times ascending high 
enough to overflow the wide crater-floor above, and 
at others sinking to the bottom, in some connection of 
sympathy with the eruptions of Mauna Loa. On 
some occasions it seems drawn off by a subterranean 
channel. 

Such an event took place in 1840, the bed of the 
crater sinking 300 feet, while the lava flowed under- 
ground to the district of Puna, where it burst out in a 
flood from one to three miles wide and from twelve to 
two hundred feet deep, destroying forests, plantations, 



244 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and villages, and finally leaping into the sea from a 
height of fifty feet, in a magnificent fire-cataract a mile 
in width. For three weeks this gleaming cascade con- 
tinued, the ocean boiling and raging beneath it, while 
myriads of dead fish floated on the waves and the 
glare was visible a hundred miles at sea. 

In 1868 a similar event took place from the crater 
of Mauna Loa, the earth quaking and quivering as the 
river of lava followed its subterranean channel and 
finally burst out on a wooded hill at Kahuka, 3800 
feet high. Here it rent a fissure nearly a mile long, 
from which the crimson flood shot upward in an ex- 
traordinary fountain to a height of 500 or 600 feet, 
sending up vast columns of fiery lava and red-hot 
rocks 100 tons in weight. Thence the glowing stream 
rushed onward to the sea, finally pouring over a preci- 
pice 500 feet high in a frightful cataract of fire half a 
mile wide. By this eruption, 4000 acres of valuable 
pasture land were buried under barren lava, and a 
much wider area of fine forest was destroyed. A simi- 
lar event, though on a smaller scale, took place in 
1866. 

These few instances will serve as examples of 
the wonderful character of the Hawaiian volcanoes. 
Other eruptions have taken place since the dates 
given; and in 1877 the lava flood seems to have 
reached the sea under ground, causing a submarine 
eruption in which flames and jets of steam burst up- 
ward from the sea, while lumps of pumice-stone were 
thrown up and floated on the waves. 



PPIYSICAL CONDITIONS. 245 

PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 

The Hawaiian Islands possess little that can 
properly be called lowlands, the mountains in many 
cases sloping down to the sea-coast, or reaching the 
sea in lofty headlands. In some localities plains ex- 
tend from the mountain foot, while valleys and ravines 
lie between the lateral spurs, and there are elevated 
plains in the interior. The great plain lying between 
the volcanoes of Hawaii has served as a field for the 
outflow of lava, being intersected by streams from the 
three neighboring volcanoes. One of the most attrac- 
tive of the valleys is that of Nuuana, running up from 
Honolulu into the hill region, and with its grassy 
slopes, its luxuriant foliage, its bridged rivulets, its 
beautiful views, presenting a most charming aspect. 
It is a favorite ride for the residents of the capital, and 
from its summit yields a magnificent outlook on the 
opposite side of the island. There are other delightful 
valleys on Oahu, which present a rare combination of 
peaks, cliffs, ravines, cascades, and rich vegetation. 

Kauai, of whose lofty table-land we have spoken, 
possesses numerous deep valleys, whose woods and 
water-falls give them a highly picturesque aspect. In 
one sea-shore locality of this island exists a hill of cal- 
careous sand which has attracted much attention from 
the curious sound it makes when disturbed, a sort of 
barking noise, from which it has derived the title of 
** barking sands." 

Niihau is the least elevated of the islands, two-thirds 
of its area consisting of a low plain, whose surface is 
made up of an uplifted coral reef and material washed 
down from the mountains. It is mainly devoted to 
grazing. 



246 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Something here needs to be said of the lava which 
makes up so much of the surface of the Hawaiian 
Islands, varying from that which has become decom- 
posed into soil and that still fresh from recent outflow. 
The latter is confined to Hawaii, and is divided into 
three classes, according to its surface aspect. The 
pahoehoe, or velvety lava, has a smooth surface, rising 
into billowy masses and greatly folded and contorted, 
due to its flowing down gentle slopes and twisting 
around or heaping over irregularities of surface. The 
a-a, or cinder-like lava, on the contrary, is very hard 
and rough; its surface presenting a multitude of up- 
right, rugged, sharp points that render it almost im- 
passable. It closely approaches in appearance a heap 
of furnace cinders. It arises, perhaps, from lava less 
fluid than pahoehoe, and full of solid points or centres 
of cooling; its roughness is probably, in a measure, 
due to the effect of obstructions to its flow, causing the 
lava to heap up Into rugged masses with angles and 
points of obsidian-like sharpness. The third form Is 
marked by clinkers or scoria, and is rough and covered 
with fragments. It Is found where the lava has passed 
through woods or been impeded by inequalities in the 
ground, or broken by the explosion of heated-air cavi- 
ties in the older lava below. Lava In some form or 
other constitutes the main element of the surface of 
the islands, and when in its rough form renders travel 
very difficult. 

The islands are too small to contain any rivers of 
importance, though some of them are well suppHed 
with streams. Those which flow down the deep 
ravines of Hawaii have been mentioned, some sixty 
reaching the sea in the district of Hilo. There are also 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 247 

numerous permanent streams on Oahu, which, de- 
scending from the highlands, form cascades and 
water-falls, and with their numerous branches give 
excellent opportunity for irrigation. 

A phenomenal feature is the remarkable salt lake 
named Aliapaakai, four miles from Honolulu and 
one mile from the sea. It is oval in form and about a 
mile in circuit, occupying, probably, the remains of an 
ancient crater. Its general depth is but eighteen 
inches, and it forms a natural evaporating-pan for the 
production of salt, which at times collects upon its 
surface with sufficient thickness to bear a man's 
weight. It seems to be connected with the sea, there 
being a hole in its centre to which no bottom has been 
found, while its level seems slightly afifected by the 
tides. But the mystery is that its surface stands 
several feet above sea-level, being sustained in some 
manner unknown. 

HARBORS. 

The principal harbor of the Hawaiian group is 
Honolulu, on the southwest coast of Oahu, which is 
formed by an indentation of the coast, protected by a 
broad coral reef. The harbor is a spacious one; but 
its use by large vessels has long been Hmited by the 
depth of the channel through the reef, which was for- 
merly but twenty-two and a half feet. As a result, 
vessels of greater draught had to lie in the outer road- 
stead, where good anchorage is to be found, except 
during the prevalence of a south wind, or kona. The 
harbor has been greatly improved of recent years by 
the cutting of a channel through the reef, 200 feet in 
width and thirty in depth at mean low water. The 



248 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

inner harbor affords abundant space for shipping, and 
has been dredged to a depth of twenty-eight feet for 
more than 500 feet along the Pacific Mail dock. 

There are other accessible harbors on the island 
which might be made use of if necessary, especially 
that formed by the estuary of Pearl River, closed out- 
wardly by a coral reef over which only small vessels 
can pass, but deep and commodious enough within to 
shelter all the vessels of the Pacific. A channel cut 
through the reef would open the way to a harbor much 
more capacious than that of Honolulu, from which it 
is but six miles distant. 

Pearl Harbor was granted by the Hawaiian govern- 
ment, in 1884, to the United States as a coaling and 
repair station for American vessels, and was con- 
sidered preferable to that of Honolulu for naval pur- 
poses. It has, however, not yet been rendered avail- 
able by cutting a channel through the reef. 

The island of Maui has its harbor at Lahaina, a 
roomy and sheltered roadstead at present but little 
visited, but formerly the place of call for whalers when 
they formed the leading agencies in the trade of the 
islands. Hilo, on the east side of Hawaii, forms the 
port of that island; though it is httle more than an 
open roadstead, a coral reef, with entrance channel, 
affording partial protection. In addition to the Ha- 
waiian harbors, the roadsteads in many places yield 
good anchorage, free from danger of hidden rocks, and 
with favoring winds during the greater part of the 
year. 

CLIMATE. 

Tropical as is the situation of Hawaii, its climate 
seems rather to belong to the temperate than to the 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 249 

torrid zone. While generally warm, it is highly salu- 
brious; the great healthfulness of the islands being 
probably due to the fresh and pure breezes which seem 
to blow continually from one quarter or other. The 
temperature is remarkably equable, and the weather 
so uniform that the natives have no word in their 
language to express that which is so common a sub- 
ject of conversation elsewhere. Americans and Euro- 
peans can work, as is proved by the fact that they do 
work, in the open air at all seasons of the year. This 
cannot be said of other countries lying in the same 
latitudes. At Calcutta, for instance, which lies farther 
north than any Hawaiian island, Europeans find it im- 
possible to perform hard physical labor. 

The mean annual temperature of Honolulu is about 
75° F., the mean of the coldest month being 62°, and 
of the hottest month 81°. The diurnal range of the 
thermometer is twelve degrees. During twelve years, 
the extremes of temperature in the shade were 90° 
and 53°. The seasons correspond in date with our 
own, — January being the coldest month, June the 
warmest. 

For those who desire to escape from the summer 
warmth, the mountains are everywhere near at hand; 
an hour's ride from the capital up the Nuuanu Valley 
bringing one into a region of cooler air and more 
bracing wind. Mountain Retreat, at an elevation of 
3000 feet above Lahaina, has a temperature varying 
from 40° to 75° F. ; and at Waimea, Hawaii, is an 
average temperature of 64°. Rains are very frequent 
on the mountains, and on the upland region of Kanai. 
at 4000 feet elevation, fires are required even in mid- 
summer. Snow is constantly to be seen on the lofty 



250 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

peaks, and has given its name to Mauna Kea, or White 
Mountain. It is to the trade-winds that Hawaii owes 
its salubrious and agreeable climate. For nine months 
of the year, from March to November, these blow 
steadily from the northeast; the wind being softened 
and made equable by its passage over 2000 miles of 
ocean. It is not always mild and gentle. At times it 
grows tempestuous ; but it is always full of the essence 
of healthfulness. 

On the leeward side of the islands, where the trade- 
wind is broken by the mountain heights, there is a 
refreshing alternation of land and sea breezes; the 
land breeze, or mamiika, sometimes descending the 
mountain sides with such violence as to do much 
damage to buildings and shipping. 

During the winter months the winds are uncertain, 
there being at times calms of several weeks' duration. 
Occasionally there comes a damp, briny wind from 
the south, now bringing heavy rain, now a close and 
stifling air. The Hawaiians call this *' the sick wind," 
rheumatism and influenza coming with it. Fortu- 
nately, it is exceptional; and the winter season is 
usually marked by cloudless skies and a dry and 
bracing atmosphere. 

RAINFALL. 

The fall of rain is in a considerable measure confined 
to the windward side of the islands, the mountains 
largely draining the winds of their vapor, so that they 
have little left for the leeward shores. In consequence, 
much less rain falls on this side of the islands than on 
the opposite, and the sky is usually cloudless. Here, 
indeed, there is not enough rain for agricultural pur- 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 251 

poses, and irrigation needs to be resorted to, while the 
persistent sunshine renders the cHmate somewhat en- 
ervating. 

The vapor brought by the trade-winds is condensed 
by the mountain masses, showers and mists being 
habitual in their summit regions, while the two lofty 
peaks of Hawaii are rarely free from a belt of cloud. 
Rains here are very frequent, and the east side of the 
islands generally is abundantly watered. Hilo, for 
instance, on the east coast of Hawaii, has an annual 
rainfall of eighty inches, and sometimes more than 
twice that quantity; while Honolulu, on the south- 
west coast of Oahu, has an average fall of about thirty- 
eight inches. 

The most disagreeable season of the year in the lee- 
ward districts comes at the time of change of the mon- 
soon, or rather during its interruption, when violent 
winds sweep through Honolulu, and rains of tropical 
fierceness fall. These do useful work in flushing the 
streets, and the winds aid in purifying the air, while 
the storms are not ungrateful breaks to the long inter- 
vals of settled calm. 

DISEASES. 

Though the native population has decreased at a 
very rapid rate during the past century, this is not due 
to any normal unhealthfulness of the islands, but to 
diseases brought by the whites, such as measles, in- 
fluenza, dysentery, small-pox, and others, which have 
swept over the islands like devastating epidemics, and 
have had nuich to do with the rapid decrease in popu- 
lation. The most dreaded disease of the island, tlie 
terrible leprosy, is also of foreign introduction, prob- 



252 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

ably brought in from China. The first case was dis- 
covered in 1853, ^^^ by 1864 it had become alarmingly 
prevalent; its rapid spread being due to its contagious 
character and the carelessness of the people. 

The policy of isolating lepers was adopted by the 
government in January, 1865, and in the autumn of 
that year lands were purchased on the north side of the 
island of Molokai for a leper settlement. This district 
is a peninsula, surrounded on three sides by the ocean, 
and on the south shut in by a precipitous mountain, 
2000 to 3000 feet high. The law of isolation was 
strongly opposed, and was not carried into efifect 
until 1873. All who show the least symptom of lep- 
rosy are now removed thither, and one might spend 
his life in the remainder of Hawaii and never see a 
leper. 

Aside from these introduced diseases, which may 
be largely eradicated by sanitary precautions, the 
islands are markedly healthful, and the genial climate 
of Honolulu and other places on their shores is found 
highly favorable to invalids suffering from pulmonary 
complaints. 



UL NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

FOREST AND FRUIT TREES. 

The approach to the isles of Hawaii from the west- 
ern or leeward side gives one a conception the reverse 
of that looked for from tropical islands. Instead of a 
riotous luxuriance of verdure, the traveller sees heaps 
of arid hills, rugged and repellent, looking hot and 
red in the sunlight, and with scarcely a trace of green 
except in their gorges and ravines. After landing at 
Honolulu, one still sees in the distance the same 
aspect, that of bare, red and yellow, lifeless slopes, 
lava-covered, yielding only a dry, parched vegetation, 
on which cattle will not feed except in case of need. 
All looks grim and forbidding, and strangely unlike 
the ordinary appearance of the isles of the tropical 
Pacific. 

The conception thus received is a misleading one. 
On the opposite or rainy side of the island there is an 
abundance of vegetation, and forests clothe the moun- 
tain slopes to their summits; while even on the arid 
side many of the valleys and ravines are rich with 
tropical verdure. Of the forest trees, the most striking 
indigenous form is the kukui, or candle-nut tree, with 
its silvery foliage and its masses of white blossoms. 
Its nuts have very oily kernels, which are strung to- 
gether and converted into candles by the natives, each 
nut kindling the next as it burns down. 

Another interesting native tree is a species of the 
pandanus, or screw-pine, which here grows luxu- 

253 



254 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

riantly, attaining a height of twenty-five or thirty feet. 
and bearing great whorls of long, drooping leaves and 
an abundance of large, heavy fruits. These, shaped 
like the pineapple, are made up of sections of a rich 
golden color, containing an edible pulp. Sandal- 
wood, which was once a plentiful product of the 
islands, has been practically exhausted. It had the 
ill fortune to find an active market and to yield much 
of the royal revenue, and was cut with such wasteful 
improvidence as to destroy the supply. The cocoa-nut 
palm, that universal tenant of the tropics, is found 
abundantly in the region of the coasts. 

In ascending from Hilo to the crater of Kilauea 
the traveller passes through a typical Hawaiian forest, 
here four miles in width, made up of the trees named, 
together with the koa (acacia), of great industrial value 
from its hard, heavy, and handsomely grained wood; 
the hibiscus, with its bluish-green foliage and lemon- 
colored blossoms; two native species of palm, and 
numerous ferns, including five species of tree ferns, 
some of them with stems twenty feet in height. Or- 
chids, so plentiful in parts of the tropics, are here rare, 
only three species having been found. 

The flowering shrubs and fruit-bearing trees in- 
clude, in addition to those named, the ohia, the pink- 
blossomed Malacca apple, which bears a juicy and 
pulpy but insipid fruit; the mairi, a very fragrant 
plant; the ohelo, the shrub whose juicy and agreeable 
berries have long been sacred to the goddess of the 
volcano; the wild plantain, and various other shrubs 
and trees. 

An unusual diversity of parasitic plants is found 
among the trees of the forest, among them the great 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 255 

birds'-nest fern, which may be seen snugly niched 
in the upper boughs of the pandanus and other 
trees, beautiful with its bright glossy fronds. Vines 
are innumerable, and succeed in rendering it a some- 
what difficult operation to traverse the forest, tangled 
lianas of all kinds growing in bewildering abundance. 
One of the most notable is the Ic, which trails over 
the highest trees, hanging in twisted and contorted 
festoons, and bearing its foliage in large tufts. In the 
centre of each tuft are several scarlet buds, sur- 
rounded by a group of scarlet leaves, the whole having 
the effect of a large and beautiful blossom. 

Fruits, native and introduced, are numerous and 
abundant. Strawberries and raspberries grow plenti- 
fully on the highlands, large of fruit, but less luscious 
than our home product. The bread-fruit, plantain, 
and banana are common, the last existing in some 
sixty varieties in different sections. The mango grows 
well, but its fruit is not a success, being poor in pulp 
and with a turpentine flavor, perhaps due to lack of 
care in selection and culture, since the introduced 
mango of Tahiti and the Philippines is a delicious 
fruit. 

Some exotic growths have thrived inconveniently 
well. The guava, for instance, grows wild in the 
forests, and forms impenetrable thickets which cover 
large tracts of country. Another introduced plant, the 
lantana, has become a veritable nuisance. This plant, 
an admired and delicate hot-house treasure in colder 
climates, grows here so profusely as to form dense 
thickets, forbidding passage by their thorns, and has 
become so thoroughly at home that it seems impos- 
sible to eradicate. 



256 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Among the plants introduced from America is the 
prickly-pear cactus, which now covers abundantly the 
waste spaces in the arid west, with whose barrenness 
its aspect is closely in keeping. Australia has fur- 
nished the eucalyptus, which has flourished so well as 
to have become a feature of the landscape. Another 
of the widely present exotics is the bean-bearing 
algaroba, or carob-tree, introduced by the French 
missionaries, and now forming welcome forests on the 
lava-strewn slopes. It is about the only plant that 
takes kindly to the lava, in which it roots and over 
which it flourishes and multiplies. It has, in conse- 
quence, been designated a "blessing of the wastes." 

Among the fruit-bearing plants may be named the 
papaya, with its bright yellow fruits, of the size of a 
muskmelon, edible either raw or cooked, and making 
dehcious pastries; the orange, lime, citron, fig, cus- 
tard-apple, rose-apple, and others of foreign origin, 
but many of which grow here like natives of the soil. 

In certain sections of the islands marvels of vege- 
table growth may be seen. Maui, for instance, pos- 
sesses what is claimed to be the largest apple-orchard 
in the world. This is a wide-spreading forest of ohias 
(the native or Malayan apple), which stretches over the 
Koolau wilderness from the mountains to the sea, 
and in the blossoming season is gorgeous with its 
pink and rosy hues. These_trees are from forty to 
fifty feet in height, and from July to September are 
loaded with red and white fruit, which has the pecu- 
liarity of growing on the trunk instead of the boughs, 
each apple attached to the bark by a delicate twig. 
For miles along the sides of the mountains may be 
seen this broad forest, the trees deeply laden with their 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 257 

beautiful fruit, which in shape more resembles the 
pear than the apple. The skin is thin and tender, and 
the fruit exceedingly juicy and agreeably cooling, 
though its taste is insipid. Mr. Whitney, in his " Ha- 
waiian Tourist," says of this remarkable fruit forest: 

" The crop of these apple-orchards, which nature 
has planted so gorgeously in this wild and solitary 
waste, would fill a fleet of a hundred steamers, for the 
orchards stretch over a country from five to ten 
miles wide by twenty long, and many of the largest 
trees bear at least fifty barrels each. The fruit fur- 
nishes the traveller an excellent repast, appeasing both 
hunger and thirst. So far as now known, no com- 
mercial use can be made of the ohia, as when ripe it 
cannot be kept more than four days." 

In addition to this native apple is a native peach, 
which grows well and bears fruit in two years from the 
seed. It is much smaller than the American peach, 
but is very sweet and juicy, and is excellent for pies 
and preserves. It might, perhaps, in a few years' cul- 
ture be greatly improved. The American peach can 
be grown at elevations of 4000 feet. The Avocado 
pear, usually called Alligator pear, grows well, and 
bears fruit of splendid quality in from three to five 
years from seed. The fruit is much esteemed, and a 
small quantity has been shipped to California. This 
is expensive, as it needs to be carried in cold storage; 
yet what reaches there in good condition sells readily 
at high prices. 

Another marvel of the islands is the semi-wild 
coflFee, a plant which we are accustomed to think of as 
solely a subject of culture, but which has spread until 
it forms great forests in Kona, on the western side of 

17 



258 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the island of Hawaii. Here the berry-bearing plant 
extends for miles over the rough mountain-sides, the 
berries, when ripe, being diligently picked by the 
Japanese, and piled in bags on the road-side, to be 
conveyed by pack-donkeys to the coffee-mills. Sterile 
and barren of aspect, Kona seems naturally adapted 
to the coffee-plant, which roots readily in holes broken 
through the lava to the soil below, where it grows 
freely and yields fruit in abundance. 

The wasteful cutting of sandal-wood and the injury 
done by wild cattle to the young plants have proved 
serious to the forest growth in some localities of the 
islands, Maui having been denuded of its forests 
through these destructive processes. As a result, the 
lava dust rises in such clouds from its barren slopes 
before the winds as to interfere with navigation, hover- 
ing, during a brisk gale, like a dense fog miles distant 
from the shores of the island. 



USEFUL PLANTS. 

The Hawaiian Islands possess three indigenous 
plants of such great utility to the inhabitants that some 
special mention of them is demanded. These are, to 
give them their native titles, the kalo or taro, the wauti, 
and the ti. The first of these, known usually as the 
taro (Colocasia esculenfa), is the invaluable native food 
staple, and is so exceedingly productive, if carefully 
cultivated, that it is said a taro-pit a few yards long will 
supply food for one man throughout the year. It is 
eaten in its simple cooked state, but the Hawaiians 
prefer it in the peculiar form known as poi, of which 
they are so fond that some of them have objected to 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 259 

leaving their native land on the plea that poi could not 
be had abroad. 

The plant is grown in pits or beds, kept very wet; 
the edible portion being its large beet-shaped root, 
one of good average size being a foot long by six 
inches in thickness. There are said to be twenty-eight 
varieties grown on the islands, their color varying from 
white to pink. The growing plants, each rising fr--m 
its own little hillock of clay above the mud and wat - 
of the pit, are as unpleasant as rice to cultivate, though 
a field in full leaf presents a pretty effect. 

To prepare the taro-root for food, it is baked in 
underground ovens. It may be eaten in this form or 
the cooked root prepared for poi, which is done by 
pounding it with a stone pestle, in a wooden bowl or 
on a scooped-out board. The work is exhausting, 
the root being waxy and close-grained, and is per- 
formed by men. 

The substance thus prepared is known as pai-ai, 
and may be kept for months in its dry state, being 
packed in dracaena leaves. It is converted into poi by 
adding water and kneading it into a smooth paste, 
which is then left for several days to ferment. This 
gives it a slightly sour but rather agreeable flavor. 
The eating of poi is an art difficult to acquire, and 
only to be performed gracefully by one " to the man- 
ner born." A finger is dipped into the bowl and is 
drawn out thickly coated with the highly adhesive 
paste, which is given a peculiar twirl and then sucked 
from the finger. This is one-fingered poi. Another 
method, known as two-fingered poi, is more difficult 
to acquire. A fastidious eater need not object to 
sharing the bowl of poi with others, as no particle that 



26o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

has once touched the finger can escape to mingle again 
in the general mass. 

Wauti, the second of the useful plants named, is the 
paper mulberry (Morus papyrifera), which furnishes 
the natives with clothing as the taro does with food. 
The fine and beautiful cloths for which the islands 
were formerly famous were made from the inner bark 
of the young shoots. The osier-like plants were cut 
when ten or twelve feet high, and the inner bark sepa- 
rated by careful and delicate processes and made into 
tapa, or native cloth, by beating with a mallet. The 
mallet had different patterns carved on its four faces, 
so that by its use several varieties of cloth could be 
produced. It was also printed in beautiful colors, de- 
rived from earths and plants. This cloth was fash- 
ioned into the pau, or woman's garment, which 
reached from the waist to or below the knees; the 
marOy the narrow cloth worn by the men round their 
loins; the sleeping-cloths of the chiefs, etc. 

The third plant mentioned, the ti (Dracaena), serves 
various useful purposes. Its leaves are used in thatch- 
ing houses, and, woven by their stalks, were for- 
merly used by the islanders to form a short cloak 
for mountain journeys. Food is wrapped in its leaves 
for cooking in the underground Hawaiian oven, and 
these tough leaves are used variously for wrapping 
purposes. The tree is planted as a hedge, and its 
porous, starchy root is baked and eaten. From the 
sap an intoxicating drink is made, a fiery and un- 
wholesome beverage. 

A more potent drink in its peculiar way is that made 
from the Azva (Piper mythisticnm) , whose preparation 
by chewing the root and steeping the masticated pulp 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 261 

in water is not very enticing to European tastes. The 
eflfect of drinking it is rather stupefying than inebri- 
ating; and the government has sought, though not 
very successfully, to suppress the use of this disgusting 
and injurious drink. The sale of intoxicating liquors 
is forbidden by law, except in Honolulu; but, as may 
be seen, the natives contrive to evade this restriction. 

NATIVE ANIMALS. 

The indigenous fauna of Hawaii is a small one. The 
mammals include a srriall rat, a lean, long-headed pig, 
and a small dog with erect ears. There are also mice, 
and a bat which has the unusual habit of flying by day. 
These were the forms found there by Captain Cook, 
though some of them may have been introduced by 
earlier visitors. There are two native reptiles, small 
lizards, which are abundant. The native insects are 
not numerous in species, though they include some 
which are very injurious to vegetation, particularly 
the pelau, a caterpillar. 

The island had of old the fortune of being free from 
poisonous or noxious animals, with the exception of 
centipedes, and these were small in size and not numer- 
ous. But civiHzation has brought its nuisances in the 
form of vermin of various kinds, as fleas, mosquitoes, 
roaches, etc., and the Hawaiians can no longer boast 
of freedom from annoyances of this character. 

There is a considerable variety of birds, including 
the domestic fowl, which is apparently indigenous, 
wild ducks, snipes, and plovers. Wild geese are 
abundant in the mountain regions, but do not come 
down to the coasts. The singing-birds are few in 
species, one of them with a very sweet note, resem- 



262 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

bling that of the English thrush. Other species are 
notable for the great beauty of their plumage. Among 
these are a small paroquet of glossy purple color; the 
tropic bird, from whose beautiful feathers was formed 
a fan carried as one of the insignia of the king and 
chiefs; and a woodpecker, bright with its plumage of 
yellow, red, and green, and from whose feathers were 
made the brilHant cloaks and helmets of the chiefs. 

Still other birds yielded their bright plumes for 
these purposes, there being one sacred to royalty, the 
Oo, a species of honeysucker peculiar to certain moun- 
tain districts, glossy black in color, but remarkable for 
possessing a pair of tiny golden feathers, one under 
each wing. These birds are now very rare, though 
they were not injured in obtaining their much-prized 
feathers, being caught by an adhesive bird-lime, and 
set free after being robbed of their yellow gems. 

The feathers are only an inch long, sharp-pointed, 
and very delicate. Of these the great war-cloak of 
Kamehameha I. was composed. This superb mantle 
is four feet long and eleven and a half feet in width at 
the bottom, and contains all the feathers gathered by 
eight or ten preceding chiefs. It is still preserved as 
a precious relic of old Hawaiian days. 

The seas around the islands contain many edible 
fish, in the taking of which the Hawaiians are very 
expert. It is one of their customs to take the fish alive 
and preserve and fatten them in tanks or ponds. So 
daring are they in the water that they do not hesitate 
to attack the shark ; making, indeed, an amusement of 
this dangerous exercise, evading and taunting the 
man-eating fish, and finally killing it with a dagger- 
thrust. 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 263 

In former times the dog and pig of the islands were 
not only used for food, but were esteemed especial 
delicacies, and were the greatest dainties that could 
be served at the royal tables. The dog in particular 
was the favorite of the epicure, — nice, little dogs these, 
carefully fed on poi, and of the size of a terrier. Their 
flesh was deemed superior to pork or kid, and a cer- 
tain number of dogs were exacted by land owners as 
part of the rent of their lands. Mr. Ellis speaks of 
having seen nearly 200 dogs cooked in one day; and 
mentions a royal banquet in which 400 baked dogs 
were served up, with hogs, fish, and vegetables in 
abundance. 

INTRODUCED ANIMALS. 

During the past century various foreign animals 
have been introduced, some of which have greatly 
flourished. Vancouver introduced cattle in 1792, and 
these in time became so numerous that thousands of 
wild cattle roam at large through the forest belt on the 
lower mountain slopes. These, increasing at first 
under state protection, have grown so fierce that the 
natives hold them in wholesome dread, and avoid their 
haunts in the forests, where they are said to do much 
damage to the timber. They had no sooner become 
numerous than shooting-parties were organized by 
white men and brown alike, and since then beef has 
become a common article of diet. 

In addition to the wild cattle, great numbers are 
kept on ranches, some of which are more than twenty 
miles long; the owners possessing nominally from 
10,000 to 15,000 head of half-wild animals, which at 
some period of their existence are corralled and 



264 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

branded with the owners' marks. In this work many 
of the Hawaiians are engaged, they being daring 
horsemen and as expert as cowboys with the lasso. 
The cattle are a degenerate breed, and crossing with 
finer stock is highly desirable. 

The horse is another introduced animal which has 
increased with great rapidity, and numbers of which 
have returned to the semi-savage state. They are so 
numerous in some of the islands as to be a plague, 
breaking fences and treading down crops, and other- 
wise rendering themselves objectionable. Yet their 
abundance has given rise to a passion for riding 
among the Hawaiians, men and women alike, though 
the wild and furious barebacked horsemanship of the 
past has been somewhat toned down under more civil- 
ized conditions. A people whose former delight was 
in war, who love to plunge down water-falls and swim 
through the fiercest surf, and who attack the shark as 
an amusement, is one likely to yield bold riders, who 
would seize on such a new muscular exercise with 
avidity. The horses themselves are small, lean, sorry- 
looking creatures, which sadly need replacing with 
better breeds. 

In addition to their cattle ranches, the islands have 
their sheep-runs; and deer have been brought thither 
and set free in the forests of the island of Hawaii, with 
a hope that they will increase as cattle have done. To 
hunt the deer in the forests of lava-covered Mauna 
Loa will be a new and exciting form of sport for whites 
and Hawaiians alike. Wild pigs are numerous, and 
boar-hunting has become one of the sports of the 
islands, often a dangerous one. The dog has also 
resumed its original wildness, and in times of dearth 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 265 

is dangerous in some of the mountain regions, where 
it has become almost as savage as the wolf. 

Various species of foreign birds have been intro- 
duced, and these, like the foreign plants, bid fair to 
replace the native species. The house sparrow from 
Europe and the turtle-dove and the maina from China 
are almost the only birds to be seen in and about 
Honolulu, and the native species are growing some- 
what difficult to find. 



IV. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 

TERRITORY OF HAWAH. 

The government of Hawaii (or Hawaii-Nei, to give 
the group its native title) has passed through the sev- 
eral phases of an absolute monarchy, a limited mon- 
archy, a provisional republic, and a constitutional re- 
public, and is now a possession of the United States. 
The bill for its organization (brought before but not 
passed by the Fifty-fifth Congress) proposes to give 
it a territorial government, under the title of the Terri- 
tory of Hawaii, with a governor appointed by the 
President and the requisite heads of the several de- 
partments of public works, public instruction, finance, 
etc. 

This bill provides for a legislature of two houses, 
consisting of a Senate of fifteen members and a House 
of Representatives of thirty members; voters for repre- 
sentatives being required to be "able to speak, read, 
and write the English or Hawaiian language;" and 
voters for senators, in addition, to possess a specified 
amount of property. All persons who were citizens 
of the Republic of Hawaii on August 12, 1898, are to 
become citizens of the United States, with the privi- 
lege of suffrage under the qualifications above named. 
Senators and representatives must have resided for 
three years in the Hawaiian Islands. 

The provisions regarding citizenship exclude Chi- 
nese and Japanese laborers, who constitute a large 
part of the population of the islands, from that right, 
266 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 267 

these not having been " citizens of the Repubhc of 
Hawaii." The laws of the United States concerning 
immigration extend to the islands, Chinese being ex- 
cluded, and also Japanese brought in under contract 
by the sugar planters. These regulations will render 
necessary some new method of procuring the requisite 

labor. 

POPULATION. 

Captain Cook, on his visit to the islands in 1778, es- 
timated the population at 400,000. This, while largely 
a guess, was perhaps not greatly in excess of the actual 
fact; for there was undoubtedly a rapid decrease in 
population previous to the arrival of the missionaries 
in 1820, when but about 140,000 people were found 
on the islands. 

Three causes of this depopulation are assigned. 
One was the sanguinary wars of conquest of Kame- 
hameha I. A second was the practice of infanticide. 
The third was the effect of diseases brought by the 
whites and acting with terrible effect upon a people 
to whom they were new. As the years went on the 
depopulation continued. In 1832 the natives were 
estimated at 130,000; in 1836 at 108,000; and in 1850 
at 84,000. In 1872 the census gave a total native 
population of 49,044; in 1878, of 44,088; in 1884, of 
40,014; in 1890, of 34,436; and in 1896, of 31,019. 
There have been for many years several thousand in- 
habitants of part Hawaiian blood ; but the full-blooded 
natives threaten to become extinct before many more 
years have elapsed. Of the three causes assigned for 
this decrease two no longer exist, infanticide and war 
being at an end, while the introduced diseases are 
less fatal than of old. The chief cause of decrease 



268 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

at present seems to be the small birth-rate; the ma- 
jority of families having no children, and few more 
than two or three. And children are greatly neglected 
by their mothers, who seem more tender of dogs and 
other pets than of their offspring. Thus, though open 
infanticide is at an end, practical infanticide seems to 
exist, and unless a stronger maternal instinct can be 
awakened in the Hawaiian women the race seems 
doomed. 

As the Hawaiians have vanished, whites and 
Asiatics have gradually taken their place. In 1878 the 
islands contained 5916 Chinese, 1276 Americans, and 
2338 foreigners of other origin. The development of 
the sugar-cane culture in the succeeding period gave 
rise to a rapid increase in the foreign population, the 
census of 1890 giving the following statistics: 

Hawaiians 34>436 

Half-castes 6,186 

Whites 21,119 

Chinese I5,30i 

Japanese 12,360 

South Sea Islanders 588 

Total 89,990 

Of these the whites are credited with the following 
origins: 

Born in the islands 7>495 

Portuguese from Fayal 8,602 

Americans 1,928 

British 1,344 

Germans I>034 

Norwegians 227 

French 70 

Other nationalities 419 

Total 21,119 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 269 

The latest census, that of September 2y, 1896, 
yielded the following results: 

Hawaiians 3i>oi9 

Half-castes 8,485 

Japanese 2/^A^7 

Chinese 21,616 

Portuguese I5>i9i 

Americans 3,o86 

British 2,250 

Germans 1,432 

French loi 

Norwegians 378 

South Sea Islanders 455 

Other nationalities 6cx) 

Total 109,020 

Of the total here given, 72,517 were males and 
36,507 females; the latter being in great measure re- 
stricted to native and half-caste women and whites of 
island birth. The occupations of the population, per 
the census returns, were as follows: 

Laborers 34,438 

Agriculturists 7,57° 

Fishing and navigation 2,100 

General industries 2,265 

Commerce and transportation 2,031 

Liberal professions 2,580 

Miscellaneous 4,3io 

Without profession 53,726 

The inhabitants were distributed over the several 
islands in the following proportions: Oahu, 40,205; 
Hawaii, 33,285; Maui, 17,726; Kauai, 15,228; Mo- 
lokai, 2307; Niihau, 164; Lanai, T05. The last two 
contain only herdsmen, and Kahulaui is uninhabited. 



270 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

EDUCATION. 

It is to the earnest labors of the missionaries that 
Hawaii owes its excellent system of public elementary 
education, one of the most complete anywhere to be 
found. As long as forty years ago there was scarcely 
a child on the islands who could not read and write; 
and a stringent system of compulsory education now 
exists which reaches all the children of the islands, 
those of the towns and of the rural districts alike. 
There are schools all over the islands, and no child 
of school age is permitted to be absent from school 
except under some satisfactory excuse. 

The government schools are numerous and are very 
good, all Hawaiian chifdren being educated at public 
expense, unless they are in some endowed or other 
private institution. The native is imitative and quick 
to assimilate, and makes satisfactory progress until a 
certain point is reached, when the limit of his intellec- 
tual powers seems to be attained. Only exceptionally 
can he be carried beyond this limit. The English 
language is everywhere taught, there being very few 
schools in which the Hawaiian dialect is retained. In 
consequence, it is rapidly dying out and threatens 
soon to vanish. 

There are many endowed institutions for the educa- 
tion of boys and girls, chief among them being the 
Kamehameha schools, founded by a descendant of the 
royal family. In these a nominal fee is charged, and 
industrial training is added to the school education, 
the boys being taught various trades and the girls the 
arts of house-keeping. 

The truant-officers do not find their duties arduous, 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 271 

as the Hawaiian children are ready and wilHng to at- 
tend school. The government schools were made free 
in 1888, with the exception of two in Honolulu and 
one in Hilo; and since then there has been marked 
progress in education, the number of school-houses 
having increased, and a uniform course of study, 
American in origin, being adopted. The number of 
pupils in 1887 was 5679. In 1894 they had increased 
to 8050, and in 1896 to 12,612. Of these, 7405 were 
Hawaiians and half-castes, 4177 whites (largely Port- 
uguese), 740 Chinese, 261 Japanese, and 29 South 
Sea Islanders. The teachers are well paid, the salaries 
ranging from $600 to $1000, or more, per annum. 

RELIGION. 

Religion has the same freedom in Hawaii as in the 
United States, and had so previous to the overthrow 
of the monarchy. Nowhere else have the labors of 
the missionaries been so completely successful; this 
being in great part due to the remarkable abandon- 
ment of their system of idol-worship by the natives 
themselves, leaving the missionaries a v\rgin field in 
which to work. Among the natives the Protestant 
doctrines most widely prevail, the Congregationalists 
being the principal sect. There are hundreds of 
churches with native Hawaiian pastors, while the 
Roman Catholic congregations are under French and 
German priests. 

At the last census the religious status of the popula- 
tion was as follows: Roman Cathohcs, 26,363; Prot- 
estants, 23,373; Mormons, 4886; Buddhists and other 
Asiatic faiths, 44,306; doubtful, 10,192. 

Of the ancient Hawaiian deities, there was one 



272 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

whose worship in a measure survived the overthrow 
of idolatry, and superstitious fear of whom is not yet 
quite extinct. This was the famous Pele, the dreaded 
goddess of the volcano, to whose wrath the terrible 
outbursts of lava were believed to be due. The great 
crater of Kilauea was the dwelling-place of this wrath- 
ful divinity, who, with her attendant demons, bathed 
and sported in its fiery waves; while the thread-like, 
silky filaments blown by the wind from the tossing 
lava are still known as Pele's hair. 

When Mr. Ellis visited the volcano in 1822, he found 
that the people who had forsaken the gods of the low 
country still held the deity of the crater in awe, and 
none dared taste of the sacred berries, which grew 
abundantly from the decomposed lava, without first 
throwing a branch loaded with the juicy fruit into the 
crater as an offering to the goddess. The worship of 
this deity received a fatal blow in 1824, when Kapio- 
laui, a princess converted to Christianity, visited the 
crater, ate the sacred berries without the customary 
offering to Pele, and defied her wrath by hurling stones 
into the burning lake. Nothing happened to her, and 
the spell of superstition was broken, though a shadow 
of the old fear still exists. The favorite votive offer- 
ings to Pele were white chickens, and these are said to 
be still occasionally offered in secret to the dread deity. 
Other offerings are also at times made by supersti- 
tious travellers; the worship of this one relic of the 
ancient Hawaiian pantheon being thus in a half- 
hearted fashion kept up, even by those who deem 
themselves good Christians. 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 273 

PUBLIC WORKS. 

The character of the Hawaiian soil and surface lends 
itself well to the art of road-making, and a number of 
very good roads exist in the islands and are kept in 
excellent condition. This is rendered necessary by 
the heavy loads which are drawn over them. There 
may be seen great wagons loaded with wood or cane, 
or huge logs drawn by from six to twelve or more 
yoke of oxen, ponderous weights for which only a 
solid road-bed would suffice. 

The mountainous character of the interior of the 
islands and their small dimensions render any con- 
siderable extension of railroad building impracticable; 
yet some good progress has been made in this direc- 
tion. The Oahu Railway and Land Company ran its 
pioneer passenger train on September 4, 1889, and 
the road was formally opened for business on Novem- 
ber 16, carrying hundreds of people free from Hono- 
lulu to Halawa. It has since been extended to Wai- 
annae, a length of line, including sidings, of 38.5 miles. 
This is a well-built, single-track road, supplied with 
rolling stock of American manufacture, and kept in 
good running order. The equipment consists of five 
locomotives, fourteen passenger and one hundred and 
thirty-two freight cars, and its business has steadily 
grown. In 1897 it carried 85,596 passengers and 
66,430 tons of freight. Mr. B. F. Dillingham, the pro- 
jector of the road, expects eventually to carry it 
around the entire island of Oahu. 

There are two other railroads on the islands, one 
on Maui and the other on Hawaii. That on Maui is 
thirteen miles long; its trains making regular trips 

18 



274 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

from Wailuka to Paia, but with poor accommodations 
for passengers, as there is but Httle passenger travel 
on this island. The sugar from a number of large 
plantations is conveyed by this road to Kahului Bay, 
three miles from Wailuka, and goods in return are 
carried inland. 

The island of Hawaii has about twenty miles of rail- 
road. A line extends from the steamboat landing at 
Punaluu to Pahala, the starting-point of the stage- 
line to the volcano of Kilauea. This road ascends 
through a difficult country, and winds back and for- 
ward, passing over deep ravines by tall trestle-work 
bridges. It is crooked but picturesque, and is provided 
with good accommodation for passengers; its prin- 
cipal business being to carry tourists to the volcano, 
which is by its aid rendered much more accessible. 

These public railroads are supplemented by planta- 
tion roads, with which nearly every large sugar estate 
is provided. They extend from all parts of the plan- 
tation to its central point, the mill ; and in some cases 
a single road connects several plantations. These 
roads are supplied with small, light rails, connected 
often by cross-ties of iron, so that they can be taken 
up and moved with little expense, the track being 
shifted as desired and cane planted where the cars had 
run. Their cars carry the hands to the fields and 
home again, bring cane to the mills, and are used in a 
dozen ways to lessen labor and expense. The engines 
are small but of good pulling power, and are kept busy 
during the grinding season in drawing great loads of 
cane to the mill. 

American enterprise, to which these roads are due, 
is also displayed in the street railways, of which there 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 275 

are a number of miles in Honolulu. Horses and mules 
furnish the motive-power for the street-cars, and are 
likely to do so for several years yet, since the com- 
pany controlling the roads refuses to put in an electric 
system in response to the public demand. In this con- 
nection reference may also be made to the electric 
light, which was introduced into the capital by the 
recent government, and is in use on some of the large 
plantations. 

Travel in Hawaii demands steamship rather than 
railroad lines, inter-island commerce being a necessity 
of the situation. In the days of native supremacy, the 
double canoe served the purposes of travellers. It 
was succeeded in later years by sailing-craft, and the 
steamer followed in due time, the Kilauea, the pio- 
neer boat, being run at a loss by the government. 
But the traffic demands grew rapidly, and a trans- 
portation company was formed, which bought the 
Kilauea, and between 1877 and 1884 added the Like- 
like, the Mokolii, the Lehau, the Kinau, and the 
Kilauea Hou (New Kilauea). In 1890, the Hawaii, 
built for the sugar-carrying trade, and the Claudine, a 
large and handsomely appointed passenger-boat, were 
added. 

The Wilder Steamship Company, which runs these 
boats, now devotes the large steamers Kinau and Clau- 
dine to regular passenger traffic, the others being used 
as freight boats, but occasionally carrying passengers. 
The Kinau makes regular trips between Honolulu 
and Hilo, stopping at intermediate ports. The Clau- 
dine runs from Honolulu to the ports of Maui. 

The inter-island traffic has increased so greatly that 
still another company, the Inter-island Steamship 



276 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Navigation Company, has successfully engaged in it; 
the boats of this company making their trips on the 
opposite side of the islands to that pursued by the 
Wilder Company boats. This company put on its 
first steamer, the James Makee, in 1879. It has since 
added the W. G. Hall, Mikahala, Iwalani, Kauai, Ke 
Au Hou, Waialeale, and Kaala. The business of these 
two companies may be estimated at $1,000,000 per 
annum, and is constantly increasing. 

Hawaii possesses a well-developed system of irriga- 
tion, which the necessities of sugar culture have ren- 
dered indispensable on the leeward sides of the islands, 
with their paucity of rainfall. The numerous moun- 
tain streams furnish a good supply of water for this 
purpose; the application of which has had a striking 
efifect upon the aspect of the islands, changing the 
barren, lava-strewn wilderness in many places into a 
paradise of luxuriant foliage. Honolulu is abundantly 
supplied with water from large reservoirs constructed 
in the mountain valleys, whence pipes convey the 
water to all parts of the town. To provide an addi- 
tional supply, many artesian wells have been sunk. 

There has been a considerable development of the 
telegraph, which is extended widely over Maui and 
Hawaii, and runs all round Oahu. The total length of 
line is about 250 miles. Hawaii and Oahu have sub- 
marine connection, and all the islands are soon to be 
connected by wire. The telephone has been intro- 
duced into Honolulu and come into very general use 
there, nearly every family having a telephone connec- 
tion. It is also wide-spread over the islands, the sugar 
estates usually having telephone connection with the 
towns. Even on the lip of the lava pit of Kilauea is a 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 277 

telephone station, from which visitors to the crater 
may notify the people at the volcano house above at 
what hour they wish dinner to be ready. The Ha- 
waiian postal system is active and increasini^. In 1895, 
the letters sent and received amounted to 3,978,880. 



?^'^ 



V- CENTRES OF POPULATION* 

HONOLULU. 

Honolulu, the capital of the Hawaiian Islands, 
presents a very attractive appearance to the traveller 
approaching from the sea. Diamond Head, an extinct 
volcano, lies like a crouching lion in the path, passing 
which the island city breaks into view, beautiful in its 
background of picturesque hills, its abundant vegeta- 
tion, deep blue skies, and warm tropical sunshine. On 
entering the harbor a scene of activity appears, num- 
bers of vessels lying at anchor, while the canoes of the 
natives — each a hoUowed-out tree kept from upsetting 
by an outrigger — dart in a lively fashion from point to 
point. 

Honolulu is a creation of the foreigner, and contains 
representatives of every travelling nation, the Ameri- 
can everywhere in the lead. In 1815 it was a mere 
fishing village on a sandy plain, whose only vegetation 
was a fringe of cocoa-nut trees along the shore. In 
that year, John Young, an American sailor who had 
been taken prisoner by the Hawaiians, and whose 
ability had raised him to the position of governor of 
the island of Hawaii, advised the construction of a fort 
at this point to command what was apparently the best 
harbor on the islands. The fort was built under his 
directions in t8i6, and made a work of considerable 
size and strength. In 1820 Kamehameha II. moved 
his court from Hawaii to Oahu, and made Honolulu 
278 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 279 

the capital of his kingdom. It is now the metropolis 
of the islands, and has grown until in 1896 it had a 
population of 29,920. 

Honolulu presents nothing of the imposing, though 
it possesses much of the attractive, many of its resi- 
dences being converted into little paradises by their 
wilderness of tropical verdure. The government build- 
ings are handsome, and on a very extensive scale 
considering the small size of the country. They con- 
tain a library and a museum, of which the former is 
well supplied with books relating to Hawaii, and the 
latter possesses many interesting rehcs, including 
weapons and utensils of various kinds. Prominent 
among them are necklaces of hair, each containing a 
hundred or more of the finest braids, reft not from 
the brow of beauty, but from the heads of warriors 
slain in battle. From each depends a curious hook- 
shaped ornament of polished shell or sperm-whale's 
tooth, a sacred emblem pecuhar to the island, its sig- 
nificance not clearly known. J 

The King's Palace, a handsome edifice built of vol- 
canic rock, stands in the midst of extensive grounds, 
with well-kept lawns and flowering trees and shrubs. 
The Queen's Hospital, with its rare tropical setting, 
is a thing of beauty of which the islanders are proud. 
There are other buildings of some prominence, in- 
cluding a number of churches, and the Royal Ha- 
waiian Hotel, the chief caravansary of the islands. 
Honolulu possesses also five public squares, of which 
the most important is the Thomas Square, a retreat 
shaded with tree-ferns and palms, within which of old 
the royal band made the air of evening musical. 

This city is said to possess in all sixty-seven miles 



28o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE, 

of streets and drives, many of them macadamized and 
fringed with trees. The streets in the business section 
of the town are narrow, but in all parts they are 
scrupulously clean, dust being kept down by frequent 
and careful sweepings. The streets are panoramas 
of life and color, business of all kinds going on 
actively, while the stores make an excellent display of 
desirable wares. In the Chinese quarter are rows of 
small shops, dealing in a variety of goods, among 
them Chinese and Japanese curios and Hawaiian an- 
tiquities, of which the latter were probably made by 
the venders themselves, though they are offered as 
genuine antiques. 

A single bank serves all the present financial needs 
of the city; but insurance agencies flourish, there 
being nearly thirty of these devoted to marine, fire, and 
life insurance. Freemasonry has long flourished in 
the islands, the capital containing thirteen lodges of 
the Order, of which King Kalakaua was a member of 
high rank. 

A few words in relation to the markets of the city 
may be of interest, the fish market being specially 
pecuHar in its viands, since the chief of these is the 
cuttle-fish, or octopus, the eight-armed sea monster 
otherwise known as the devil-fish. This repellent 
creature is a favorite article of the Hawaiian cuisine, 
as it is of the Japanese, and is to be seen here in all its 
sizes and varieties. The large ones are cut up and 
sold in sections, while those of intermediate size are 
displayed alive, with their writhing snake-like arms. 
Diminutive forms of the same tribe may be bought by 
the dozen. The Hawaiian native does not hesitate to 
eat these alive, asserting that a live cuttle-fish is a 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 281 

greater delicacy than the best oysters. Fish are often 
eaten raw, and seemingly enjoyed. 

There are various edible fish offered for sale, to- 
gether with spiny sea-urchins, oysters, limpets, crabs, 
cray-fish, and several varieties of sea-weed, eaten 
either raw or cooked. The fruit market is well sup- 
plied with watermelons, large and juicy; bananas, 
oranges, cocoa-nuts, figs. Avocado pears, and pine- 
apples of inferior flavor. 

Honolulu is a foreign city in more respects than 
one. Built and largely inhabited by foreigners, it 
owes its chief charm — the luxuriant foliage which 
converts it into a paradise of beauty — to foreign 
plants, vitalized with the water brought by the skill 
of foreign engineers from the mountain streams. The 
deficiency of rain has been made good by irrigation, 
which has converted the site into a blooming garden, 
rich with the foliage of imported plants. 

In the words of C. F. Gordon Gumming, " A multi- 
tude of pleasant two-storied bungalows are embowered 
in gardens brilliant with flowering shrubs, and by the 
richest trees of the tropics. Beautiful passion-flowers 
and starry clematis, orange venusta, and bougain- 
villeas, with their rich masses of magenta foliage, 
climb in profusion over the verandas and droop from 
the roofs, — which indeed they almost conceal. Helio- 
tropes, roses, and geraniums well repay the care be- 
stowed upon them. Golden allamandas and rosy 
oleanders, pure white trumpet-flowers, scarlet and 
yellow hibiscus, and fragrant gardenia are among the 
commonest shrubs, while starry white lilies grow in 
rank profusion, as does also a fragrant and beautiful 
white cactus, the night-blooming cereus, which creeps 



282 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

unheeded over rough stone walls and banks. Over- 
head the feathery tamarind trees form a soft veil of the 
lightest lace-like foliage, or large glossy-leaved india- 
rubber trees throw their cool, dark shadow on smooth 
green lawns; and mango and bread-fruit rank as 
handsome foliage trees, though their fruit is not to 
compare with that of the Southern isles. Norfolk 
Island pines and date-palms both grow luxuriantly, 
also the magnolia and eucalyptus." 

The most beautiful of these ornamental trees is the 
royal palm, which reaches perfection in Hawaii, and 
adorns nearly every lawn in the city. The Hawaiian 
dwelling is a one-storied edifice, with verandas front 
and back, and sometimes on the sides, and wide doors 
opening into parlor, dining-room, and other apart- 
ments. The walk from the street is paved with heavy 
slabs cut from the trunks of the pulu fern trees, which 
form a soft and fine-wearing pavement. The tree does 
not suffer from the wound, since this quickly heals. 
On either side of this walk are rows of bright-leaved 
plants, beyond which on each side extends the pro- 
fusion of bloom above described, while in the gardens 
grow bananas, oranges, dates, figs, and a dozen other 
tropical fruits. Shade is supplied by the banyan, the 
bamboo, the tree fern, and other tropical trees, form- 
ing shady and invitmg retreats during the midday 
heat. 

Honolulu has its striking surroundings. Overlook- 
ing the town is a steep hill of volcanic scoria, reddish 
brown in color, with a crater at the top known as the 
Punch-Bowl. A little farther away is the Diamond 
Head promontory, red and lava seamed. It is about 
760 feet high, and contains an extinct crater 700 feet 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 283 

in depth. Its days of power are gone, and it is now 
crumbling away under the assaults of wind and rain. 

Three miles from the city, and between it and Dia- 
mond Head, lies the pleasant sea-side village of Wai- 
kiki, which the citizens seek in carriages or street-cars 
for the enjoyment of surf-bathing. It presents a suc- 
cession of handsome private villas, surrounded by 
gardens; while bathers find there an excellent beach, 
clear water with smooth bottom, commodious bath- 
houses, and good bathing temperature from January 
to June. The sharks which haunt most of the coast 
rarely or never cross the reef at this place. 

Back of Honolulu, ascending into the mountains, is 
the beautiful Nuuana Valley, which ends in a great 
cleft in the mountain ridge known as the Pali, and 
yielding a magnificent view of the verdant eastern side 
of the island. This valley is luxuriantly green to 
within two or three miles of the town, and is bordered 
by numbers of handsome villas. The rain-clouds pass- 
ing through the cleft pour their refreshing waters 
along its course, shedding their last drops on the 
streets of Honolulu with such parsimony that some 
streets are rainier than others, and irrigation from the 
water-pipe and artesian well is necessary for the gar- 
den vegetation of the town. 

HILO. 

Hawaii possesses few towns besides the capital, the 
only one of importance being Hilo, the port of Ha- 
waii Island. This town has original features of its 
own ; an air of novelty being given by the great palms 
which adorn the court-house square, and the quaint 
and picturesque streets, which display a marked 



284 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

variety in architecture and occupants, the people 
being a mixture of Asiatics, Polynesians, Europeans, 
and Americans. There are three pubUc edifices, — the 
court-house, custom-house, and post-office, — and in 
addition an excellent library. 

The town is marked by a luxuriant profusion of 
foliage, the constant heavy rainfall causing a proHfic 
growth of all kinds of trees and shrubs. The headland 
which aids in forming the harbor is crowned with 
cocoa-nut trees, and the streets are flanked with palms, 
bamboos, and other tropical growths. The town 
slopes gently back from the shore of the bay, which is 
enclosed by a crescent-shaped beach, said to be the 
most beautiful in the Pacific. At its outer extremity 
is Cocoa-nut Island, which charmingly completes the 
curve with its verdant covering of tall and graceful 
cocoa-nut palms. 

The humid air and over-abundant rainfall of Hilo 
give an extraordinary profusion to its vegetation, the 
dwellings being almost buried in their luxuriant gar- 
dens and the flowering vines which clamber over sides 
and roofs. A like tropical luxuriance marks the 
country in the background, the surrounding hills being 
covered with dense forest, while in the vicinity are 
miles of sugar-cane plantations. There are many 
beautiful water-falls, caused by the descent of the 
numerous streams from the higher levels into deep 
and difficult ravines. 

The American predominates in Hilo, as in all the 
centres of population of the island; but occidental 
activity is not a characteristic of the town, whose poly- 
glot population seem to think that the chief end of 
life is to do nothing with the least possible effort. 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 285 

LAHAINA. 

The village of Lahaina, on the western coast of 
Maui, was once the capital of that island, the residence 
of its king, and the chief city of the Hawaiian group. 
Here were the royal palace, the American and British 
consulates, and streets and harbor marked by bustle 
and activity. It was the commercial as well as the 
political capital, and a place of call for the whahng 
vessels, which here obtained their supplies, frequently 
paying for the same with blackfish oil. Long after 
Honolulu had become the leading city, Lahaina con- 
tinued the whalers' port, the captains preferring it 
from the fact that their men could obtain no liquor 
there, the sale of spirits being restricted to Honolulu. 
During this period the whaling fleets brought the 
principal business to the islands, and were a valuable 
source of revenue to the government. 

The place has long since fallen from its high estate; 
the palaces of the kings and chiefs have sunk into 
decay, and the merchandise warehouses have disap- 
peared. Commerce has fled to new scenes, following 
royalty, which long since deserted Lahaina in favor 
of Honolulu, and left the latter a deserted village, 
destitute even of a hotel. 

There is a sugar-mill here, the cane being brought 

from fields four or five miles away. For two miles 

along the shore the village spreads, in a grove of 

bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, mango, tamarind, orange, and 

other trees, beauty having stayed when royalty fled 

awav. 

KAILUA. 

Of the other villages of the islands it will suffice to 

speak of Kailua, on the shore of Hawaii, at the foot 



286 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

of the volcano Mauna Hualalai, whose last eruption 
took place a century ago. This place was once a royal 
residence of the kings of Hawaii, and later a favorite 
country-seat of royalty. A large old stone building is 
pointed out as the former palace. At Keauhou, six 
miles south of Kailau, is a spot of historic interest, that 
in which the great discoverer, Captain Cook, met his 
death, and where a monument has been erected to his 
memory. It is a plain obelisk of concrete, with an 
inscription and a surrounding of chains and old 
cannon. 



VL THE PEOPLE OF HAWAII. 

THE NATIVE POPULATION. 

The Kanakas, to give the native Hawaiians the 
title applied to them by the whaling crews, are a very 
interesting people. In race they belong to the Ma- 
layo-Polynesian stock, and may be classed among the 
finest of the Pacific peoples, bearing a close resem- 
blance to the New Zealanders in stature and in their 
well-developed and muscular limbs. The mass of the 
people are of moderate stature, but the chiefs and the 
women of their families are of unusual height. Their 
color is a reddish-brown, resembling that of tarnished 
copper. They have a broad face, with thick lips and 
somewhat flattened nose, while the beard is thin and 
the hair, usually raven black, is straight, or in some 
cases wavy. They are more hardy and active than the 
peoples living nearer the equator, due perhaps to their 
salubrious climate and the comparative sterility of their 
soil, which renders necessary some degree of industry 
in the cultivation of their food plants. Yet the country 
people take life very easy, little exertion being neces- 
sary to obtain the means of subsistence. 

They are a good-tempered and light-hearted race, 
given to mirth and laughter, fond of pleasure, and of 
the most genial disposition. Friendly and forgiving, 
the Hawaiian meets every one with a smile, and is 
genuinely hospitable. He is free from malice, harbors 
no treachery, and is natively simple-minded, kindly, 

287 



288 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and benignant. Though seemingly unfit to conduct 
business, he makes a faithful and trusty employee, and 
there is no occupation on the islands in which he is 
not engaged. 

In former days the only dress worn by the men was 
the malo, a narrow strip of cloth wound round the loins 
and passed between the legs. Women wore the pau, 
a short petticoat made of tapa, the bark of the cloth- 
tree or paper mulberry, and reaching from the waist 
to the knees. And this scanty attire was thrown off 
without hesitation when they wished to indulge in 
their favorite exercise of swimming. The habits of the 
people were very licentious, female virtue being an 
unknown thing; while the common practice of in- 
fanticide, particularly of female children, had a serious 
effect on the numbers of the population. 

These former social conditions have largely disap- 
peared before the efforts of the missionaries. Men 
now wear a shirt and trousers, and those of the better 
class use the full European dress ; while the women all 
wear the holoka, a loose garment, white or colored, 
which reaches from the neck to the feet. The head is 
covered with a colored handkerchief, or a straw hat is 
worn. Both sexes delight to adorn themselves with 
flower garlands and necklaces of colored seeds. Some 
of these garlands, or leis, are very pretty, being made 
of small roses, oleanders, jessamines, or other flowers, 
strung into a thick rope of bloom. They may be 
made of feathers, or trails of some green vine may be 
gracefully twined round the hat or worn round the 
throat. The bright blossom of the scarlet hibiscus is 
much worn by men, while others make a more durable 
garland by stringing together the orange-colored sec- 



THE PEOPLE OF HAWAII. 289 

tions of the fruit of the screw-pine. This pretty cus- 
tom adds much to the picturesqueness of the native 
attire. 

Kind and genial as is the Hawaiian, he is remark- 
ably brave and daring, his favorite sports being of a 
character whose danger would repel most people. In 
the old days of war the Hawaiians fought with the 
greatest courage, some of their battles lasting for days, 
and ending in the annihilation of the defeated party. 
Their expertness with the javelin was remarkable. 
One of their games consisted in throwing spears at a 
warrior, whose skill was shown in his catching the first 
in his hand and with it warding ofif the others. King 
Kamehameha I. would permit six spears to be thrown 
at him at once, all of which he caught or avoided. 

Their ordinary amusements were of the same dan- 
gerous character. After the introduction of the horse, 
a wild passion for riding gained control of the people, 
and both sexes took delight in dashing wildly through 
town and country, without thought of danger. The 
women rode astride, wearing over their holokas a gay 
riding-dress, which consisted of a strip of crimson, 
purple, or yellow calico twisted round the body and 
with its ends flying in the breeze. Riding astride is 
still the fashion for women in Hawaii: while the men 
engaged on the cattle-ranges are as skilful horsemen 
and as expert with the lasso as our own cowboys of 
the West. The saddle used is the high-peaked Mexi- 
can affair, to which huge wooden stirrups are attached. 

It is in the water, however, that the Hawaiian has 
long shown the greatest intrepidity, the perilous pas- 
time of surf-swimming having been for centuries the 
favorite national sport. It was after a day of storm, 

19 



290 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

when the surf came rushing inward in tremendous 
billows, that the native most delighted in braving the 
fury of the waves. Though the great green billows 
might be rushing in like wild horses and breaking on 
the beach with overwhelming violence, the Hawaiian, 
carrying his surf-board, — a carefully prepared wooden 
plank, — did not hesitate to plunge into the seething 
surf. 

Diving beneath the first wave, he rose beyond it 
and swam out to meet another, through which he 
again plunged, and thus dived under wave after wave 
until he reached the smoother water outside. If he 
should miscalculate by a second of time, he would be 
caught and dashed shoreward by the surf, with im- 
minent risk of being flung headlong on the rocks. 
But failure was rare, the swimmer having gained skill 
through practice from childhood. 

The outer waters reached, the most exciting time 
came. Lying flat on his board, the swimmer launched 
himself on the highest wave, and was carried ashore 
at race-horse speed. He might be caught by a follow- 
ing wave or fail to keep his plank at the right angle, 
in which case he was likely to have to swim for his 
life, sometimes being compelled to abandon his trusty 
board. But if all went well he was carried smoothly 
and safely shoreward, the most skilful standing up- 
right on their boards and shouting with glee and 
triumph as they were borne to the beach. Surf-riding, 
however, appears to be obsolete, and a surf-board is 
to-day a very difficult thing to obtain. 

Not only men, but women and boys, were remark- 
ably expert in the water, and the boys of Honolulu 
are to-day always ready to dive after a flung coin, 



THE PEOPLE OF HAWAII. 291 

usually catching it before it reaches the bottom. It 
was not only in the ocean that the Hawaiian swim- 
mers exhibited their daring. They did not hesitate to 
trust themselves to the dashing waters of cascades, 
darting in glee down the shooting and seemingly 
death-dealing liquid. Even the long flumes which 
carry water from the hills to the sugar-mills are made 
use of by the workmen to save a walk, and a young 
married couple is said to have made their wedding- 
trip to the coast down one of these flumes. 

The fearlessness of the Hawaiian boatmen makes 
them indispensable in the traffic along the coast. 
Many of the landings are very dangerous, and the 
boats which carry passengers or freight ashore from 
the steamers are always in peril of being upset by the 
waves or crushed on the rocks. Yet the boatmen are 
so skilful that it is a rare event for one of them to be 
drowned. They swim like fish, and the capsizing of 
a boat is a matter of small moment to them, while the 
imperilled passengers are usually safe in their hands. 
The indolence of the native ends when he has occa- 
sion to go to sea. In his light canoe he makes his way 
daringly through the surf, deftly using his paddle to 
avoid the beach-combers, and quickly passing the 
danger-line into the open waters beyond. 

We have already spoken of the contests of these 
bold swimmers with the sharks of the coast. When 
the shark turns to snap at his intended victim the 
native dives, and the great jaws come emptily to- 
gether. A skilful dagger-thrust may end the contest, 
or the Hawaiian may be armed only with a piece of 
sharpened iron eight or ten inches long, which he 
thrusts into the monster's mouth as it opens to seize 



292 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

him, the jaws being propped open by the iron and the 
great brute rendered helpless. 

Dancing is one of the amusements of the people, 
the favorite performance being a voluptuous dance 
called the hula-hula, which consists of movements of 
the body timed to a doleful music, the feet taking little 
part in it. The usual costume is a short skirt made of 
grass, the upper body adorned with flower garlands. 
Nude dancing, formerly common, is prohibited by law, 
though still occasionally performed. 

As regards the industrial occupations of the Ha- 
waiians, their employment as boatmen is but one out 
of many, they being engaged in a great variety of oc- 
cupations. Among them are many blacksmiths, car- 
penters, painters, machinists, engineers, and teamsters. 
Others serve as clerks or book-keepers, or as editors, 
school-teachers, or clergymen. Their occupations in- 
clude cattle-raising and sugar-planting, while they fill 
most of the clerical positions under the government. 
The pressmen and compositors in the printing-offices 
are mainly natives ; they are employed in the telephone 
offices, and the heavy work in iron foundries and in 
the loading of vessels is almost wholly done by them. 
Considering that less than, a century ago they were 
in their pristine condition of semi-savagery, their 
progress has certainly been phenomenal. 

The language of the Hawaiians, now rapidly dying 
out, is a branch of the widely-diffused Malayo-Poly- 
nesian tongue, which is so similar throughout that 
peoples as widely separated as the Hawaiians and New 
Zealanders can with some difficulty understand each 
other. It is a soft and harmonious form of speech, 
largely vocalic in structure, the only consonants being 



THE PEOPLE OF HAWAII. 293 

k, I, m, n, and p. These with the five vowels, the gently 
aspirated //, and the vocalic w, make up the alphabet 
in use. R and t, formerly used, have been suppressed 
in favor of / and k, the word taro, for instance, becom- 
ing kalo. What little is left of this language must soon 
vanish in view of the common teaching of English in 
the schools. 

DWELLINGS AND FOOD. 

The houses of the natives were formerly mere huts 
of grass, their roofs being thatched by and their walls 
made of dried grass. Wooden houses are now used 
in Honolulu and most of the country districts, the 
grass house being rarely seen. Large and substantial 
dwellings would be none too safe in a country subject 
to earthquakes, and of little utility for a people whose 
mild climate tempts them to live mainly out of doors. 
What little cooking is needed is done outside. The 
oven consists of a hole in the ground, in which a fire 
is lighted and stones are heated. The fire being re- 
moved, the food is wrapped in leaves and placed in the 
hole beside the hot stones, where it is covered up and 
left to the cooking process. The houses are princi- 
pally utilized for sleeping, the whole family bein^ 
stretched upon the floor and covered with a broad 
sheet of tapa, or native cloth. 

The taro tuber, as already stated, serves as the prin- 
cipal article of food, either cooked or formed into the 
favorite edible poi. The sweet potato, yam, bread- 
fruit, cocoa-nut, banana, papaya, and other food-stufYs 
and fruits serve to vary the diet. The edible dogs, 
formerly the favorite food viand at a Hawaiian high 
feast, were carefully fattened on poi, and were baked 
in the manner now employed in baking pig and fish, 



294 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

a method which has received the praises of all epicures 
who have tested the result. 

This method is the common one of cooking with 
heated stones. The pig is slain and dressed, and is 
then rubbed upon the hot stones until the hair comes 
off. The body is filled with heated stones, placed in 
the imu, or earth-oven, and covered with hot stones 
and taro and banana leaves. The excavation is then 
closed with earth and the meat allowed to roast and 
steam for hours. The result is a thoroughly well done, 
crisp, and juicy roast pig. 

A hiau, or native feast, is one of the great occasions 
in Hawaii. The natives of that country are credited 
with cannibalistic feasts in olden times; and it is said 
that when the question of how they should dispose of 
the corpse of the great Kamehameha came up, some 
one calmly proposed that they should eat it. There 
is the best of reason to believe, however, that all this 
is a calumny, and that the Hawaiians were never can- 
nibals. Their feasts have a decidedly civilized flavor. 
A luau is a sort of combined picnic, — sOme parties 
providing the poi, others the meats, others the fruits, 
others the hilolo, a pudding made of grated cocoa-nut 
and taro, and others the poi-palau, a compound of poi 
and sweet potato. Limn, a fresh-water moss, is a 
favorite relish, as also is the candle-nut roasted and 
salted. 

The meats are cooked in the imu in the method 
described, the fish and pieces of beef and pork being 
wrapped in young taro leaves, which absorb their 
juices, tough ti leaves being bound round the whole. 
Nothing can be more delicious than meats hot from 
the imu, while the taro leaves vield a delicate form of 



THE PEOPLE OF HAWAII. 295 

spinach. Slices of cooked taro and other vegetables, 
fruits, and bowls of poi form the remainder ,of the 
feast. 

When the meal is ready, the participants in the feast 
sit or squat around the matting on which it is placed, 
and each proceeds to eat with no other aid than that 
of his fingers, while mirth and good humor prevail. 
A luau used to be given in honor of every important 
event, followed usually by hula dances and other fes- 
tivities. 

INHABITANTS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. 

As has been already stated, the Hawaiian popula- 
tion has rapidly decreased since the period of Captain 
Cook's visit to the islands, and this decrease still con- 
tinues. It may end in a complete disappearance of 
the race, the few survivors being swamped by inter- 
marriage. This decrease has been ascribed to im- 
morality, infanticide, and the introduction of foreign 
diseases. The women are less numerous than the 
men, and the married ones have few children, the 
majority of them having none. The maternal instinct 
seems largely lacking, and children are greatly neg- 
lected. 

The decrease in population due to these causes has 
been made up in part by the importation of foreign 
laborers. Chinese came at first in large numbers as 
plantation hands, principally after 1875. Later, to 
supply the increasing demand, many Portuguese were 
brought from Madeira, and a small number of Poly- 
nesians were introduced from other islands. Within 
the more recent period Japanese have been brought 
in under contract, until they have surpassed the Chi- 



296 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

nese in number, while at present the laboring popula- 
tion, of Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese, is double 
that of the full-blooded Hawaiians. The remaining 
population is principally composed of Americans, 
British, and Germans, the Americans being in the 
lead. 

The importation of foreign laborers was largely a 
result of the disinclination of the natives to plantation 
work. The same difficulty arose with the Portuguese, 
who preferred work of other kinds, and sought open- 
ings for employment off the plantation. Even the 
Chinese, who were expected to solve the difficulty, 
have branched off into various other occupations, 
many of them engaging in market-gardening, while 
others bought up the swampy tracts of land and con- 
verted them into prolific rice-fields. Their skill and 
industry have enabled them to produce such crops of 
rice, fruit, and vegetables as Hawaii had never before 
seen. 

The plantation laborers are principally Chinese and 
Japanese, brought over under contract; their wages 
at present twelve to fifteen dollars per month, of which 
they send home to China or Japan every cent they can 
possibly save, — and these Asiatics can live on what 
would be speedy starvation to a white man. Cheaply 
as the Chinese can live, the Japanese coolie is said to 
surpass him in the art, and, small as are his wages, he 
manages to obtain food and clothing and send home 
for future use nearly the whole sum. It is said that 
some of the lower-class Japanese live on one dollar 
per month, their diet being rice and water and their 
dress cast-off clothing. The planters usually furnish 
huts for their laborers and medical attendance when 



THE PEOPLE OF HAWAII. 297 

they are sick, but nothing more. The Portuguese and 
Hawaiians are better paid than the Orientals, receiving 
from sixteen dollars to eighteen dollars monthly. 

The contract-labor system was established in the 
days of royalty, and was solely a governmental affair; 
the Japanese government hiring laborers to the Ha- 
waiian government, which in turn hired them to the 
planters for a fixed period and a stipulated sum. The 
laborer had no voice in the matter, and during the 
contract period was virtually a slave, an attempt to 
leave the plantation being followed by severe punish- 
ment. 

The new status of Hawaii, as a part of the United 
States, puts an end to the bringing in of laborers under 
any such system. The introduction of Chinese labor 
is positively forbidden under any circumstances, and 
no Japanese can be brought in under contract. These 
immigration laws form an awkward problem for the 
sugar-kings to handle, in view of the steady drift from 
plantation life of the present laboring population. 
Just how the difificulty is to be overcome does not 
clearly appear, unless it be by the introduction of 
negro labor. ''The negro might cost a little more," 
say some of the planters, '' but he is capable of doing 
more work, and such a change is likely to be profit- 
able." 

The Americans and Europeans form the governing, 
planting, and mercantile classes, and to their enterprise 
and capital are due all the steps of progress and indus- 
trial development to be seen. Of the American resi- 
dents of the islands a very considerable proportion 
were born there, being the descendants of the early 
missionaries who, through the influence of the Ameri- 



298 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

can Board of Missions, were induced to settle perma- 
nently in the islands, as centres of good influence with 
the people. These islanders of foreign paternity now 
number nearly 8000, and form a solid basis for the 
new status of Hawaii as an American territory. A 
large increase in this American population is likely to 
take place under the new condition of affairs, and a 
marked development of the resources of the country 
may_be confidently looked for. 



VIL AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 

GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The islands which an immigrant desiring to engage 
in agricultural enterprises would find of most interest 
are four in number, — Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, and Kauai. 
Of these, Hawaii, with its copious rains on the wind- 
ward side and variety of soil and climate, is full of 
promise, particularly in sugar and coffee production. 
The Kona district has an extended reputation for the 
excellence of its coffee, which some claim to equal or 
surpass the best Mocha or Java. Numerous sugar 
plantations have been established here, while there are 
several hundred coffee-planters, owning from 200,000 
trees to one or a few acres. Thousands of acres lie 
uncultivated, awaiting capital and enterprise. 

The same may be said of Maui, on which, also, 
thousands of acres lie fallow. It has its sugar planta- 
tions and coffee lands, the latter having been just 
opened up. The western slopes of Haleakala, the main 
mountain, are covered with small farms devoted to 
potatoes, corn, beans, and pigs. Oahu is rich with op- 
portunities to the investor. Its railroad line opens up 
rich coffee and farming lands, and, if extended round 
the island, as proposed, must bring into cultivation its 
many fertile valleys. Kauai, the " Garden Island," as 
it is called, is very well watered and luxuriant in vege- 
tation. At present it is largely devoted to sugar-cane, 
though there is considerable rice grown. Coffee has 

299 



300 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

been tried and failed; but this was through lack of 
judgment, and there is much land likely to be suited to 
this crop. 

SUGAR PRODUCTION. 

Captain Cook and his successor Vancouver were 
particularly impressed, in their visit to the Hawaiian 
Islands, with the extraordinary luxuriance of the 
sugar-cane and its unusual sweetness. Stalks of it 
were seen twenty feet in height, while it was found 
growing freely in every valley of Kauai as if it were 
native to the soil. It was probably introduced by 
some earlier visitors centuries before; but the genial 
chmate and the rich soil furnished by the disintegrated 
lava seem to have brought it to a perfection nowhere 
else attained, and to a richness in sugar reached in 
no other lands. 

The cane was everywhere cultivated in the rude 
fashion of barbarian agriculture; its sweet pith being 
a favorite with the islanders, whom it served both for 
food and drink. Early in the nineteenth century, 
foreign visitors, chiefly Chinese, tried to produce sugar 
from the cane, using primitive methods; but the first 
intelligent effort was made by the American firm of 
Ladd & Co., who purchased a tract of land at Koloa, 
on Kauai, in 1835, planted it with cane, and erected 
the first sugar-mill on the islands. Horses or mules 
formed their motive-power, water-power being after- 
wards used, and finally steam. Stone and wooden 
rollers were first used to grind the cane. 

This pioneer enterprise has been succeeded by a 
large number of plantations, many of them of immense 
extent. There are said to be about seventy of these 
monster plantations on the islands, worth more than 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 301 

half a million of dollars each. Of these plantations, 
that at Sprecklesville, on Maui, is not only the largest 
in Hawaii, but is said to be the largest in the world. 
It embraces 40,000 acres of cane, and is owned by two 
sons of Claus Spreckles, the Californian sugar-king. 

With the production of sugar in Hawaii was closely 
associated the question of irrigation, much of the land 
on the leeward side of the mountains lacking the de- 
gree of rainfall needed by the cane, though their sur- 
face layer of red lava dust was capable, by the aid of 
water, of being made highly fertile. The richness of 
the disintegrated lava is said to be due to the presence 
of a very large proportion of phosphates and nitrogen, 
and to this is due also the permanence of its fertility. 
When, after yielding many crops, the generous soil 
shows signs of exhaustion, its fertility can be restored 
by sprinkling it with the ashes of burnt weeds and 
refuse cane. The cane from the crushing-mills thus 
becomes the natural manure for the fields, giving 
them back their lost potash. The volcanic soil has the 
further advantage of yielding good natural drainage. 

The cane found growing by Captain Cook has been 
replaced by the best varieties from other sugar-grow- 
ing countries, different canes being used in accordance 
with the difference in soil and altitude. The irrigation 
works consist of great flumes, or wooden aqueducts, 
which cause the water of the mountain streams to 
spread over the lowland plains. By this free use of 
water a wilderness of red dust has been converted Into 
fertile fields of cane, whose green expanse is visible 
not only on the low coast lands but on the mountain 
sides. The flumes which convey water to the lower 
fields serve a second useful purpose, the cane from 



302 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

plantations on the higher grounds being floated by 
them to the crushing-mills in the valleys below. In 
this way the cut cane is sometimes transported by 
water for a distance of several miles, — a great saving 
of labor. The workmen, as already stated, occa- 
sionally save themselves a down-hill walk by taking 
passage in this water-carriage, in company with the 
cane, or the logs for fuel which are sent down in the 
same way. 

The cane, after its water-carriage of miles to the 
mill, is delivered on the carrier leading to the crushing- 
rollers, while the water, after having done its duty, 
falls through an open grating, and is carried onward 
to irrigate fields at a lower level than the mill. It may 
be said that this ingenious method of cane transporta- 
tion is only applied under favoring conditions, the 
railway being the usual method of carrying the cane. 

The aqueducts used to water the arid fields are ex- 
tensive and needed much engineering skill in their 
construction. The district of Makawao, in Kauai, 
with its great width of arable land, is irrigated by a 
conduit thirty miles long, descending at a slight grade, 
nowhere more than twelve feet to the mile. Numerous 
ravines needed to be crossed by the aid of large pipes, 
in which the water-pressure was so great that it taxed 
the resources of the engineer to provide the necessary 
resisting power. At the Maliko gulch, 500 yards wide, 
the pipes are carried to the bottom of the ravine and 
up again on the other side. These works give fertility 
to the plantations on the mountain side, and irrigate 
an expanse of several thousand acres of former desert 
in the plain below. 

The plantation at Ewa, on Oahu, is irrigated by 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 303 

water drawn from artesian wells of inexhaustible yield. 
The water is pumped up into stand-pipes, from which 
it is conveyed in conduits to the different sections of 
the great plantation, every portion of which receives 
just the necessary quantity of moisture. Thousands 
of acres of land are watered by these great works, the 
life-giving streams being carried for miles in every 
direction. 

No small amount of skill is needed properly to dis- 
tribute the water to the hills of cane, the fields being a 
net-work of flumes and ditches, through which the 
water flows. The canes are planted in short rows, 
separated by little ditches, in which the water is 
allowed to stand at a depth of several inches for a day 
or two at a time. Each row is opened in succession 
with the hoe, the water let in, and the ditch then 
dammed up, the water being allowed to soak slowly 
into the ground at the roots of the plants. 

The remarks here made apply to the western sides 
of the islands. On the eastern or rainy sides irrigation 
is not called for, the rainfall being often over-abun- 
dant. The moist atmosphere checks rapidity of 
growth as compared with the dry and sunny regions, 
and the cane may make no more progress in twenty 
months than it does in twelve months in irrigated 
fields. In the elevated fields, slowness in maturing is 
correlated with greater density of product and much 
superior yield of sugar. 

The sugar-planter is not without his enemies, espe- 
cially rats and worms, — the former gnawing the cane 
for its sweet pulp, the latter boring into and riddling it 
internally, so that a seemingly sound cane may be a 
honeycomb within and all its sugary juices gone. 



304 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The rat is the most persistent enemy of the planter; 
his ravages causing great loss in cane and considerable 
expense in endeavors to circumvent him. In Jamaica, 
where the rats proved an equal nuisance, numerous 
expedients were from time to time vainly adopted. 
Cats were first tried, but were worsted in the fray. 
The ferret was then introduced, but yielded to the 
attacks of the chigoa-flea, an enemy to all imported 
animals. The Cuban ant, a useful rat-destroyer, was 
next tried, and also the great Agua toad. These were 
serviceable, but the rats increased; and it became 
necessary to employ rat-catchers, with their troops of 
terrier dogs, their traps, and poisons. All these 
methods proved useless, and finally the Indian mon- 
goose was introduced, the natural foe of rats and 
snakes. This proved effective, and the rats almost 
disappeared, districts which were formerly abandoned 
in despair to the devouring rat being again brought 
under cultivation. 

Rats are as destructive in Hawaii as in Jamaica, and 
the rat-catcher has long been one of the most useful 
characters on the islands. With his little corps of 
twenty or thirty terriers he is able to make havoc in 
the army of rodents, and in a few days may for the 
time being clear a plantation of these pests. The 
mongoose was introduced about 1880, and proved a 
very effective ally of the planters, increasing in num- 
bers at a rapid ratio and quickly making havoc among 
the rodents. 

The mongoose has one weakness, — it loves eggs 
and poultry. The rats destroyed, the new animals 
became something of a pest in turn, giving their atten- 
tion to the poultry yard. It is claimed that they are 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 305 

less destructive in this direction than the rats, and that, 
being easily caught, one or two dogs suffice to clear 
a plantation of these inconvenient allies. However 
that may be, the poultry-raisers have gained legisla- 
tion in their favor, and a law was passed in 1892 for 
the destruction of these foreign rat-killers. 

The yield of sugar by Hawaiian cane is large, aver- 
aging four to five tons per acre, and reaching under 
favorable conditions eight or more tons. The cane 
needs about twelve months to reach maturity in irri- 
gated fields, and the cutting and grinding begin in 
January and continue to June. No description of the 
process of sugar-making is here called for, as this pro- 
cess has been fully described under the head of Cuba. 
The methods pursued in Hawaii do not differ from 
those of Cuba. 

The crushing apparatus in some of the Hawaiian 
mills is of unsurpassed effectiveness. From three to 
five crushing-rolls are used in the Cuban mills, but the 
great Ewa mill on Oahu has no less than nine rollers, 
working on improved plans, and crushing the cane 
so thoroughly that it leaves the rolls in rags and 
powder. The dry product, empty of every vestige of 
juice, furnishes the only fuel used in the mill. 

In some of the mills the diffusion process of extract- 
ing juice from the cane replaces the crushing one. The 
latter, however, is usually preferred. More juice can 
be obtained by diffusion, but the juice from the 
crushed cane yields more sugar. The Ewa mill yields 
93.08 per cent, of the total juice, and the gain in sugar 
is eight per cent, over that yielded by the diffusion 
plant at first employed. 

The process of skimming, boiling, and liming does 



3o6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

not need to be again described. It will suffice to say 
that the thickening syrup, when finally drawn from 
the vacuum-pans, is run off into the centrifugals, 
which resemble circular churns with wire screens. 
These are made to revolve at an extraordinary rate of 
speed; the result being a separation of solid and liquid, 
the syrup being thrown through the wire screens and 
leaving dry sugar behind. This, still hot, is drawn off 
into bags and conveyed to the warehouses. The boil- 
ing of the syrup is repeated until all the sugar it con- 
tains is extracted, each new boiHng yielding sugar of 
a lower grade. 

The sugar product of Hawaii has steadily increased 
for many years. In i860 the export was quoted at 
1,144,271 pounds. In 1877 it had risen to 25,575,965 
pounds, and in 1881 to more than 88,000,000 pounds. 
The later crops are estimated in tons, that of 1891 
being 146,174 tons, and that of 1897, 248,555 tons. 
The 1898 crop has been estimated at 248,576 tons, of 
which there are apportioned to the island of Hawaii 
126,737, Kauai 51,864, Maui 41,047, and Oahu 28,929 
tons. Nearly 70,000 persons — men, women, and chil- 
dren — are engaged in the sugar culture in some 

capacity. 

COFFEE CULTURE. 

Coffee finds itself much at home in Hawaii, espe- 
cially in the island of that name, where, in the Kona 
district, it has spread into forests of semi-wild plants. 
These we have already described. It would not be 
easy to find a more barren and sterile soil than that 
of Kona, yet here the coffee-plant flourishes, being 
often, as is said, "planted with a crowbar." That is, 
a hole is driven through the crust of lava rock, and 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 307 

the coffee-twig, dug up from the forest, is planted in 
the soil below. Here it grows and bears luxuriantly. 

The soil of the Puna district is similarly lava- 
covered, Kilauea having long poured her floods of 
liquid rock over its surface. Yet coffee thrives here, 
and of a quality nowhere surpassed. Some of the 
plantations contain from 25,000 to 60,000 trees, there 
being over fifty plantations where there was dense 
forest a few years ago. 

The soil of Hawaii is of a dark chocolate or red- 
dish-brown hue, the darker being the best adapted to 
coffee. Being of volcanic origin, its fertility varies 
according to the degree of disintegration of lava and 
the quantity of decomposed vegetable matter. When 
the ground is covered with broken A-a lava the soil 
is very rich. Stones in coffee land are of utility as an 
aid to drainage, but are not otherwise necessary. 

The coffee crop succeeds best at a height of from 
500 to 2000 feet, though there are thousands of fine 
trees at sea-level. These, however, are more subject 
to blight than those at a higher altitude. 42° F. is the 
lowest temperature the coffee-plant will bear, and from 
48° to 80° is thought to be the best for successful 
culture. Wind is its worst enemy, and wind-breaks 
of some kind are necessary, the banana and the castor 
bean being among the plants used for this purpose. 
As regards shade, which is thought so important in 
Cuba, opinions in Hawaii differ, some planters shading 
their plants, others exposing them freely to the sun. 

The first coffee sent from Hawaii to the United 
States was the ill-cleaned, poorly-cured product from 
the semi-wild trees. Even in that condition it attained 
a reputation for excellence which stands the planter in 



3o8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

good stead to-day. With careful culture, the coffee 
grown here should attain a high standing. The deli- 
cacy of its aroma is beyond question; while it ranks 
as a specialty, being somewhat unlike the Central 
American and South American coffees in flavor. Al- 
though Hawaiian coffee has been grown and marketed 
for years, its cultivation on an extended scale and on 
scientific principles has been only recently attempted, 
and the full result cannot yet be stated. 

Of the Hawaiian coffee lands, the government holds 
76,000 acres, which are open for sale. The whole ex- 
tent of coffee lands is about 200,000 acres, of which 
178,000 are in Hawaii, 14,000 in Maui, 3500 in Oahu, 
and 1500 in Kauai. Much of this is as yet inaccessible 
from lack of roads. The government lands can be 
obtained at an annual rental of from one to two and 
a half dollars per acre, or can be leased at eight per 
cent, on a valuation of five dollars per acre, with privi- 
lege to purchase at that price. Homesteads are 
limited to eight acres at nominal cost, the purpose of 
the government being to prevent large corporations 
from obtaining control. 

In the year 1896 there were about 10,000 acres 
planted in coffee, the great bulk of which had been 
very recently cleared. In 1898 there were 222 planta- 
tions in all, of which 193 were on the island of Hawaii. 
As may be seen, the industry is still in its infancy. 
The coffee is subject to injury from blight and insects, 
though as yet no serious trouble has been experienced. 
The prevailing labor on the coffee plantations is Jap- 
anese, the laborers being paid from twelve dollars to 
fifteen dollars each per month, without board. The 
planters, however, prefer Chinese laborers, as they are 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 309 

more tractable and need less overseeing. The labor 
problem, indeed, is a question of serious import, the 
native Hawaiians not liking field labor, and much pre- 
ferring employment on the cattle ranches. The ques- 
tion of picking the coffee remains to be solved. Na- 
tive women and children may perhaps be employed, 
though there are certain obstacles in the way of this. 
No description of the modes of cofifee culture and 
preparation for market is here necessary, as these do 
not dififer essentially from the methods pursued in 
Cuba, as already described. The two crops above 
named — sugar and cofifee — are the leading plantation 
products of Hawaii, the government lands, estimated 
at 1,782,500 acres, being thus divided: 

CoflFee 76,270 

Sugar 25,626 

Rice 977 

Grazing 451,200 

High forest 681,280 

Rugged mountains 227,000 

Barren lands 300,000 

Homesteads, government interest in 20,000 

It is estimated that in all there are 2,000,000 acres 
of grazing and 290,000 of arable soil on the islands. 
The upland soil is generally thin and poor; but at the 
bases of the mountains, where abrasion, disintegra- 
tion, and accumulation of vegetable mould have gone 
on for ages, there are extensive fertile tracts, while the 
thinner soils yield an abundance of fine pasturage. 

OTHER AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, 

Rice comes third among the agricultural products 
of Hawaii, there being over 8000 acres devoted to this 
grain, of which two-thirds are in Oahu. This culture 



3IO OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

gives constant employment to about 2500 persons, 
while 1500 more are employed during the harvesting 
season. The annual product of rice paddy is about 
18,000 tons, yielding v^hen milled about 12,000 tons 
or 240,000 bags of rice, three-fourths of which are 
needed for home consumption. The rice is raised from 
Carolina seed and is of excellent quality. 

Most of the rice land yields two crops a year, each 
crop averaging a ton and a half per acre. The land Is 
carefully levelled, and terraced so that it may be 
flooded with water, with which it is covered to a depth 
of from half an inch to three inches. Before harvest- 
ing, the water is drawn of¥ and the ground allowed 
to dry. 

This is an industry with which the Chinese and 
Japanese are thoroughly familiar, rice cultivation 
being the form of agriculture to which they are spe- 
cially accustomed at home. As a result, as has been 
already stated, the Chinese have taken very kindly to 
the raising of rice, and many waste regions of swamp 
land have been converted by them into prolific food- 
bearing fields. 

Next in importance among the commercial agricul- 
tural products of Hawaii is the banana, to which many 
large plantations are devoted. In 1894, there were 
exported 123,000 bunches of this fruit; though the 
distance of foreign markets stands in the way of an 
active development of this industry. It is said that an 
acre of favorably situated land will grow a thousand 
banana plants, yielding annually ten tons of fruit. The 
sweet potato, another of the leading food products, 
flourishes on surfaces of lava which are almost desti- 
tute of soil, and can be counted on to yield, in good 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 311 

locations, about 200 barrels to the acre. As for its 
humble associate, the white potato, of foreign intro- 
duction, it will grow anywhere, demanding no care 
and attention beyond that of planting. Of the ubiqui- 
tous taro, the basis of the indispensable poi, it is said 
that forty square feet of land will supply the food of 
one man for a year, and that a square mile in taro will 
support 15,000 Hawaiians. 

The indigo plant grows so freely that it has become 
a troublesome and ineradicable weed, sharing this evil 
characteristic with the lantana and the guava. It 
does not repay the trouble it causes, since the indigo 
yielded by it is of inferior quality. The root of Tacca 
pimiafifida yields a Polynesian variety of arrow-root, 
and from the crown of tree-fern stems of the genus 
Cibotium is obtained a soft, silky fibre known as piihi, 
which is exported in large quantities to the United 
States as a material for filling cushions. 

Numerous foreign fruit and other plants have been 
introduced, among which are coffee, tobacco, cotton, 
wheat, maize, potato, cacao, grape, orange, citron, 
melon, fig, pineapple, guava, tamarind, and such gar- 
den vegetables as the cucumber, bean, onion, cabbage, 
pea, carrot, turnip, asparagus, lettuce, celery, etc., 
which are grown in the vegetable gardens of the 
Chinese. In fact, in the uplands all the products of 
the temperate zones can be grown. 

Several of these exotic plants have proved excel- 
lently adapted to the soil and of much economic value. 
Wheat and potatoes thrive on the uplands of Maui. 
Tobacco grows freely, though its leaf is of inferior 
quality. Oranges of fine quality are raised, and in 
some districts the pineapple grows like a weed, yield- 



312 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

ing large fruit, though not of fine quahty. The water- 
melon is so prolific that it is almost a drug in the 
market. The bamboo has been known to grow six- 
teen inches in a day. Most of the vegetable drugs, 
dyes, and spices can be raised, and the ramie fibre 
plant grows luxuriantly, also the Sisal hemp. Only 
sufficient rainfall is needed to make the soil teem 
with plenty. 

The Hawaiian forests yield many plants of industrial 
value. Allusion has already been made to the ohia, 
the ti, and the wauti trees, the widely distributed cocoa- 
nut, and the koa tree, which yields a beautiful wood 
suitable for cabinet-w^ork. There are other valuable 
hard-woods, and the forests may yet become a fertile 
source of revenue. Building lumber is transported 
down the mountains in difficult localities on the backs 
of strong, sure-footed mules, two of which, going 
tandem, can carry a log on each side, weighing to- 
gether 400 pounds or more, along narrow paths and 
down perilous steeps which seem dangerous to human 
feet. No vehicle could traverse these difficult paths, 
and only by the aid of these faithful animals could the 
lumber of the lofty uplands be brought into use. The 
irrigation flumes, as already stated, serve a similar 
purpose. 

GRAZING INDUSTRIES, 

The native pig, and the ox, horse, sheep, goat, and 
dog (the native dog has become extinct), introduced 
forms, constitute the principal large animals of the 
group, and have increased so abundantly that large 
numbers of them exist in a state of almost pristine 
wildness in the uninhabited mountain and forest re- 
gions. The wild boar is hunted, while the wild bull 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 313 

hunts man, and occasionally with serious results. In 
certain localities groups of wild dogs are encountered, 
almost as fierce as wolves if pressed by hunger. Wild 
goats find themselves at home on the high mountains, 
and the horse has so increased that in its semi-wild 
state it does considerable damage to the woods and 
plantations. The native is poor indeed who does not 
own a horse, and most of them lay claim to two or three. 
The wild cattle of the mountains, a very inferior breed, 
are shot or lassoed for the sake of their hides, of which 
large numbers are exported, a single island having 
yielded as many as 11,000 hides in a year. Formerly 
the natives trapped them by digging pits near pools of 
water, a practice which proved fatal to Douglas, the 
botanist, who fell into one of these pools and was 
gored to death by a bull. 

The raisers of sheep are few in number, but some 
of them own large flocks, and the wool clip is con- 
siderable. The island of Niihau, for instance, the 
greater part of which is a low, grass-covered plain, is 
mainly used for sheep-grazing. The Gays and Robin- 
sons, owners of the island, have 30,000 sheep, whose 
wool is not surpassed by the best Australian clip. The 
island is inhabited only by their employees. The same 
is the case with the island of Lanai, west of Maui, a 
region of little fertility and devoted to sheep-raising, 
the shepherds being its only inhabitants. 

The extensive grazing lands on the other islands are 
largely used for cattle, of which great herds are kept, 
under the control of the native cowboys, the Hawaiian 
wild riders, than whom there are none more daring 
or more skilled in the use of the lasso. The Kanaka 
herdsman is proud of his accomplishments, and has 



314 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

adopted the broad-brimmed sombrero and the loud 
jingHng' spurs of his Mexican counterpart, in which 
brave attire he dehghts to swagger through the city 
streets, to the admiration of the boys. 

It is well to say, in conclusion of this section of our 
subject, that the character of the utilization of Ha- 
waiian soil is largely governed by elevation. It may 
be divided broadly into four zones. The sugar zone 
extends from the sea-level to 1500 feet of elevation, — 
sometimes higher. About half of it needs some degree 
of artificial irrigation; the remainder is sufficiently 
watered by the rainfall. The cofifee zone extends from 
a height of 1500 to 3000 feet. A third zone, that of 
fruit and vegetables, largely overlaps that of cofifee, 
though extending beyond it. The fourth and highest 
zone, that devoted to grazing, reaches from 3000 to 
5000 feet of elevation. As regards the Hawaiian soil, 
it varies from dark red to light red and yellow shades 
of color, the dark red being the most, the yellow the 

least, fertile. 

BIRD PRODUCTS. 

The ostrich has been introduced into Hawaii, and 
promises well. In a valley region of Kauai, shut in on 
three sides by lofty hills and on the fourth by the 
ocean, is kept a group of these great birds, the prop- 
erty of Mr. Charles N. Cooke, of Honolulu. The 
valley is sandy, and the birds are as much in their 
native element as on the Sahara desert. They are 
carefully fed, ground bones — not overly fine — forming 
an essential part of their diet. Their feathers are 
plucked twice a year, the birds being driven into a pen, 
in which they are securely fastened during the process. 
Thus far Hawaiian ostrich-farming is an experiment, 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 315 

of which the profits can be told only after a longer 
interval. 

The most interesting industry connected with birds, 
however, is that of Leyson Island, a lone isle of 
the Pacific situated some 800 miles west of Honolulu, 
yet now looked upon as an outlying member of the 
Hawaiian group, its nearest neighboring land. This 
island, low-lying and apparently an uplifted coral reef, 
is of about 100 square miles area, and is the home of 
myriads of ocean birds, including ducks, gulls, boo- 
bies, frigate-birds, and various other species, about 
twenty-five in all. So numerous are they that they 
darken the sun when they take to flight, and so tame 
that they need to be thrust aside in walking, and 
can be picked up by any one who wishes to make a 
capture. On the railroad track which has been laid 
on the island, a man has to sit in front of the car and 
push the birds with a stick out of the way of the mules, 
while parties who visit the island are obliged to close 
their doors or tent-flaps closely at night to keep out 
the intrusive winged inhabitants. 

Leyson Island is sought for its guano, the product 
of birds which for ages past have lived and died there 
in myriads. Their decaying remains and the disinte- 
grated coral form a valuable fertilizer, of which hun- 
dreds of tons are shipped annually to Hawaii and the 
Pacific coast. In addition to the guano, the eggs are 
frequently gathered, cars being filled with them and 
vessels loaded. But the distance to which they have 
to be carried renders this industry unprofitable. 

At one time an effort was made to utilize the island 
for the raising of swine. A number of hogs were 
placed on it, and increased so rapidly that the experi- 



3i6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

ment promised to be a success. But the hog-raiser 
had not counted upon the buccaneers of the Pacific. 
Captain Pease, a noted pirate of those waters, being 
short of meat, swooped down on the island one day, 
during the absence of the manager and his aids and 
assistants, killed the hogs, salted down the pork, and 
sailed away with it in his vessel's hold. Since then the 
piratical captain has met with a violent death ; but the 
hogs have not been replaced, and the island is left to 
its native inhabitants, the birds. 



VIII. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 

MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES. 

Of the manufacturing establishments of Hawaii 
there is only one to which special attention need be 
given. This is the Honolulu Iron-Works, which owes 
its prosperity to the development of the sugar in- 
dustry, consequent upon the reciprocity treaty of 
1876 between Hawaii and the United States. The 
steady and increasing demands of the planters for im- 
proved machinery gave a vigorous impetus to this 
establishment, which has grown in dimensions and 
facilities and in the number of its employees until its 
pay-roll is said to amount to $5000 per week. 

It has to import all its coal and iron, which puts it 
at a disadvantage in competition with iron-works on 
the continent; but it has the advantage of being on 
the ground and in position to supply machinery at 
short notice, which could not be got elsewhere with- 
out considerable delay. It possesses also the most 
recent and powerful machine tools, and during the 
past ten years has made more than sixty crushing- 
mills for plantations, wnth much other sugar-making 
machinery. 

Another large enterprise of Honolulu is the Ha- 
waiian Electric and Cold Storage Company, organized 
in 1892, and now possessing three powerful engines, 
of about 1500 horse-power. It runs cars and elevators, 
has cold-storage and ice-making rooms of over too,- 

317 



3i8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

ooo cubic feet capacity, and is capable of supplying 
electric light to a city twice the size of Hawaii. 

These extensive establishments, due to American 
capital and enterprise, are the only manufacturing con- 
cerns on the islands to which attention needs to be 
called. There are, of course, numerous minor manu- 
factures, necessary to supply the island demand for 
articles of immediate consumption, such as clothing, 
utensils, smith-work, etc., but these have given rise 
to no establishment on a large scale, and are largely 
in the hands of the Hawaiians themselves. For in- 
stance, out of the 11,135 ""lale Hawaiians over fifteen 
years of age, shown in the last census, about 1000, or 
one in eleven, were carpenters. Others of them are 
painters, blacksmiths, machinists, engineers, etc., a 
remarkable showing for a people who had scarcely 
begun to emerge from savagery a century ago. 

COMMERCE, 

The commercial interests of Hawaii are large and 
growing, the commerce being very largely with the 
United States, which receives nearly the total sum of 
exports. In 1897 the proportion sent to this country 
was 99.62 per cent, of the whole, of which 96 per cent, 
consisted of sugar. Our proportion of the imports to 
Hawaii was considerably less, the United States fur- 
nishing 76.94 per cent., while 11.85 P^^* cent, came 
from Great Britain and her colonies, and the remain- 
der was about equally divided between Germany, 
China, Japan, and other countries. 

The chief articles of export, aside from the over- 
whelming supremacy of sugar, were hides, wool, rice, 
coffee, and fruits, the total value of exports being 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 319 

$16,021,775. The imports amounted to $7,682,628, 
showing a large balance of trade in favor of the islands. 
^* These imports were largely in the lines of provisions, 
'clothing, hardware, machinery, and agricultural imple- 
ments. The United States has a large proportion of 
the trade in cotton goods, and a monopoly of that in 
boots and shoes, felt hats, and the better class of straw 
hats. Of exported goods, the most marked increase 
is in cofifee, which amounted to $2628 in 1892, $25,063 
in 1896, and nearly treble the latter sum in 1897. As 
yet no large coffee estates have been opened, the in- 
dustry being composed of a number of small holdings, 
in addition to the wild, or semi-wild, coffee of the 
island of Hawaii. The export of coffee in 1897 was 
337,158 pounds. Under present conditions, the com- 
merce of the islands is likely to be very largely in- 
creased, and the United States to gain a much larger 
proportion of the import trade than that now pos- 
sessed. 

The leading articles sent from the United States 
( consist of iron and steel, wooden wares, cotton fabrics, 
fertilizers, breadstuffs, drugs and chemicals, boots and 
shoes, manufactured tobacco, mineral oil, fish, hay, 
wine, malt liquors, hardware, and machinery. 

Of the Hawaiian exports in 1896, sugar comprised 
nearly the whole, and all of this, to the value of $14,- 
932,000, came to the United States. The exports of 
rice to this country amounted to $163,571 ; of fruits 
and nuts, to $76,124; of hides and skins, to $65,104; 
smaller quantities of coffee, wool, molasses, and vari- 
ous other substances making up the total sum. The 
commerce of 1898 shows a marked increase over that 
of the two years named, the total value of the exports 



320 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

for that year being $17,346,744; that of the imports, 
including specie, $11,650,890. Half of this increase 
was an increase in imports from the United States. 
The customs duties collected were $896,795, as 
against $708,493 in 1897. 

SHIPPING* 

The statistics of shipping for 1897 show a good 
ratio of increase over the preceding years, 427 vessels, 
of 513,826 tons, entering Hawaiian ports, as against 
386 vessels, of 447,997 tons, in 1896. Of the 1897 
shipping, 286 vessels, of 270,045 tons, were from the 
United States, 141 vessels, of 243,781 tons, from 
foreign ports. Yet this proportion does not give a 
correct idea of the actual situation, since the foreign 
tonnage includes the mail-steamers, mostly British, that 
stop merely to land the mails and a few passengers 
and that carry very little freight. Of the 427 vessels, 
291, of 215,262 tons, were sailing-vessels, engaged in 
freightage, and of these 237, of 164,406 tons, were from 
the United States. The inter-insular trafBc in 1896 
employed 59 vessels, of 29,024 tons, about one-third 
of them being steamers, the remainder sailing-vessels. 

The steamship lines plying between Honolulu and 
the United States include the Oceanic Steamship 
Company, the Oriental and Occidental Steamship 
Company, the Pacific Mail, and the Oregon Railway 
and Navigation Company, each with four ships, and 
the Japanese company, Nippon Yusen Kaisha, with 
two ships. Most of these vessels touch at Honolulu on 
their way to more distant ports, at times two or three 
steamers touching there weekly, at other times ten 
or twelve days occurring between steamers. 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 321 

FINANCES. 

Until recently, the gold and silver coins of all na- 
tions passed current in Hawaii at their real or nominal 
values, though the Mexican dollar and the French 
five-franc piece were the leading coins; but since 
December 31, 1894, only the gold coins of the United 
States have been legal tender for sums over ten dollars, 
Hawaiian and American silver being legal tender for 
smaller sums. Paper money is not in use, with the ex- 
ception of treasury certificates representing deposits 
of coin. As a result of this state of affairs, no change 
in the circulation will be necessary to produce con- 
formity to the new political relations of the country. 
The silver of Hawaii amounts to $1,000,000, and the 
whole circulating medium of the islands is estimated 
at $3,500,000. 

Hawaii had a national debt on December 31, 1896, 
of $4,136,174. Its revenue for 1896 amounted to 
$1,997,818; expenditures to $1,904,191. The chief 
sources of revenue were: customs, $656,896; taxes, 
$706,542; internal revenue, $168,384. The ruling 
rates of interest range from five to twelve per cent. 

The revenue of the islands is likely to increase con- 
siderably under their new relations and the growing 
development of their resources, which are as yet in 
their infancy. Sugar is the only product to which 
much attention has been paid, and in whose culture 
capital has been largely invested. The cultivation of 
coflfee is a rapidly growing industry, and this crop bids 
fair to gain a large development in the coming years. 
Other products of commercial value are likely to at- 
tract attention. A large area of arable land remains 



322 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

to be utilized; and the early years of the twentieth 
century will doubtless show so considerable an in- 
crease of Hawaiian production and commerce as to 
make this new accession to the United States one of 
great and growing value. 



SECTION IV. 
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

• • • 

L HISTORICAL SKETCH* 

It is now nearly 400 years since Ferdinand Magel- 
lan, on his pioneer voyage across the waters of the 
newly discovered Pacific Ocean, reached an outlying 
member of an extensive archipelago to which he gave 
the name of the St. Lazarus Islands. This event took 
place on the 12th of March, 1521. Proceeding to 
Cebu, a neighboring large island of the group, he 
gained such influence over its ruler as to induce him 
and his court to accept baptism and to acknowledge 
the supremacy of Spain, to whose king they took the 
oath of vassalage. 

Magellan, in return, aided the ruler in a war with 
his neighbors, an act for which he paid severely, being 
wounded in battle, and dying on March 26, 1521. The 
alliance with the Spaniards soon came to a violent 
end, the natives finding reason to distrust their new 
allies. The leading officers of the expedition were in- 
vited to a banquet by the Cebu chief, and were treach- 
erously attacked during the feast and all but one of 
them killed. The ships left in haste, one of them, 
the Vitoria, reaching Spain and completing the first 
circumnavigation of the globe. 

323 



324 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

From time to time other expeditions were sent to 
these far eastern waters; one of them, sent by Cortes 
from Mexico in 1528, taking possession of the La- 
drone Islands, the principal member of which has 
recently been ceded to the United States. The name 
of Filipinas was given in 1543 by Villalobos to the 
island now known as Samar, and was applied to the 
whole group by Legaspi, who conducted an expedi- 
tion from Mexico in 1564, under orders from Philip 
II. to "conquer, pacify, and people" this island group. 
The name " Islas Filipinas," or Philippine Islands, 
given in honor of Philip IL, first appears in a letter of 
Legaspi's of the date of 1567. 

Legaspi, who was appointed governor of Spain's 
new colony, made a settlement on the island of Cebu 
in 1565, whence he removed to Luzon and founded 
the city of Manila in 1571, dying the following year, 
as the annals say, of disappointment and disgust. The 
subjugation of the islands made considerable progress 
under him, and he has since been known as the '* Con- 
queror of the Philippines." 

In truth, the true conquerors of the Philippines are 
acknowledged to have been the Roman Catholic mis- 
sionaries, who made their way fearlessly among the 
natives, converted them widely to Christianity, and 
gained such an influence over them as to keep them 
in subjection to Spain during most of the time since. 
"The missionaries were the real conquerors of the 
PhiHppines," says Tomas de Comyn; "their arms 
were not, indeed, those of the warrior, but they gave 
laws to millions, and, scattered though they were, 
they established by unity of purpose and of action a 
permanent empire over immense multitudes of men." 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 325 

They learned the language of the natives, came into 
intimate relations with them, and, by gaining an in- 
fluence over their minds, were enabled to control 
them through the agencies of faith and superstition. 

The history of the islands contains few events of 
special interest, being largely made up of the annals 
of a long series of governors, of contests with the 
natives and the Chinese, and of records of earth- 
quakes, volcanic eruptions, and devastating hurricanes. 
A fleet of Chinese pirates made a descent upon Manila 
shortly after its founding, but were repulsed by the 
Spanish garrison after a desperate assault. 

In 1603 occurred a singular event. Three man- 
darins appeared at Manila, bringing with them a 
Chinaman who had assured their emperor that the 
island of Cavite was a mass of solid gold; a story on 
whose truth he pledged his life. The governor settled 
the question by conveying the envoys to Cavite and 
letting them examine for themselves. Soon after- 
wards a report spread that a Chinese army, 100,000 
strong, had been gathered for the invasion of the 
Philippines, and hasty preparations were made for the 
defence of Manila, a friendly Chinaman named Eng 
Kang aiding actively in the work. 

The peril was not from the Chinese abroad but from 
those at home. There were numerous Chinese set- 
tlers in Luzon, and a plot, in which Eng Kang was 
deeply involved, had been organized among them to 
massacre all the Spaniards on the vespers of St. 
Francis's day. The conspiracy was discovered, and 
after some sharp fighting the Chinese were repulsed. 
They were closely followed in their retreat, and dealt 
with so sharply that out of 24,000 in revolt only 100 



326 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

were left alive, to be sent to the galleys. Eng Kang 
was decapitated and his head exposed in an iron cage. 

This disaster did not check the Chinese. Numbers 
of them continued to seek the islands, and in 1639 
another outbreak took place, in which 30,000 of these 
immigrants were involved. They began a guerilla 
warfare, causing such devastation that the natives 
joined the Spaniards against them, and they were 
subdued with great loss. In a subsequent revolt, this 
time on the part of the natives, the rebels were induced 
to surrender under promise of pardon. The result 
was one with which we are familiar in Spanish colo- 
nial history. "The promise was not kept," say the 
annals; ''but the leaders of the insurrection were 
hanged, and multitudes of the Indians sent to prison." 

An event of different character took place in 1645. 
For two months Luzon was frightfully shaken by 
earthquakes, during which a mountain was overturned 
in the province of Cagayan and a town at its foot was 
engulfed. Torrents of mud and water burst forth in 
many places, and in Manila nearly all the public build- 
ings were destroyed and 300 of the inhabitants lost 
their lives. In the whole island more than 3000 
perished. 

Under the governorship of De Lara, which began 
in 1653, a series of disasters occurred, — earthquakes, 
tempests, insurrections, and "a web of anxieties and 
calamities." Missionaries who were sent to convert 
the Mohammedans on Mindanao were put to death, 
many converts turned traitors, and Keuseng, a Chi- 
nese piratical chief who had conquered Formosa, sent 
an envoy demanding the surrender of the Philippines. 
As he had under him 1000 junks and 100,000 men, his 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 327 

demand created general alarm. All the Chinese were 
ordered to quit the country, and on their refusal they 
were attacked and nearly all of them massacred. Keu- 
seng failed to carry out his threats. 

For many years following these events the chief 
matters of interest were the disputes between the civil 
government and the priests. The archbishops claimed 
the supremacy of ecclesiastical over civil authority, 
and long-continued quarrels ensued, which were not 
all settled without bloodshed. There were similar 
quarrels between the several religious bodies, the 
Dominican and the Augustinian friars denying tTic 
supremacy of the regular clergy, and resisting the 
admission of parochial curates. 

During the period under review the commerce of 
the Philippines was strangely conducted. It consisted 
in the freight of a single vessel, or galleon, sailing 
annually to and from Acapulco, Mexico, conveying 
the produce of the islands or goods received from 
China, and bringing European and Mexican wares 
in return. Absurd restrictions were placed on mer- 
chants, who were obliged to pay $20,000 for the 
privilege of freighting this vessel, and none could 
take part who had not resided several years in the 
islands and were worth less than $8000. Friars, offi- 
cials, influential women, and others took part clandes- 
tinely in the venture, and the goods had to be invoiced 
at very high rates to cover the expected profits. If 
they paid high tribute to speculators in Manila, they 
did the same in Mexico, where thirty-three and one- 
third per cent, was added to the invoiced prices. Simi- 
lar conditions controlled the return voyage. The 
galleon was allowed to bring back only double the 



328 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

value of the cargo she had taken out; but, in order to 
increase the profits of the venture, the cargo was in- 
creased by invoicing it at prices below its value, and 
roguery of every kind prevailed. 

Yet the venture was not always profitable. Occa- 
sionally the galleon was lost at sea, and that year loss 
and sorrow prevailed. In some instances it was taken 
by the licensed freebooters of other nations. The gal- 
leons were four-deckers, of 1500 tons, strongly armed, 
and commanded by officers of the royal navy; yet 
they fell an easy prey to the dashing British and Dutch 
rovers. Drake obtained treasure worth $1,000,000 
from one capture, and a successful British cruiser 
sailed into London harbor with damask sails and 
silken rigging from its spoils. The Dutch gave still 
more trouble, their cruisers lying in wait off the coast 
of Luzon to capture the Spanish treasure-ships. At 
one time a formidable Dutch fleet appeared off Manila 
Bay, but instead of besieging the town it hovered 
about in hopes of capturing merchantmen. In con- 
sequence, it was attacked and completely routed by 
the Spanish fleet. 

There were other troubles with the Dutch, and with 
the English in 1762, in which year v/ar broke out 
between England and Spain. The first news of this 
at Manila was the appearance of a hostile British fleet, 
consisting of thirteen ships with 6830 troops. The city 
was unprepared for defence and had but a small gar- 
rison. The fleet appeared on September 22, and 
opened fire on the night of the 23d, and the final 
assault was made on October 5, when the city was 
taken and given over to plunder by the captors. In 
addition to the sack of the city, a requisition was made 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 329 

on the authorities for a sum equal to $4,000,000, — a 
war indemnity that was promised but not paid. The 
Spanish, under the lead of Simon de Anda, kept under 
arms in the interior, and confined the British to Ma- 
nila. One result of their resistance was a massacre of 
the Chinese, who had conspired to assassinate the 
Spanish leaders, Anda declared them all traitors, and 
ordered them all to be hanged; the result being that 
thousands who knew nothing of the conspiracy were 
executed. 

The British held the city until March, 1764, when it 
was evacuated as one of the conditions of a treaty of 
peace, and the authority of Spain was re-established. 

In addition to the massacres of the Chinese named, 
another, in which other foreigners were involved, 
took place as late as 1820. Yet despite these acts of 
slaughter the Chinese continued to seek the islands, 
in which they now reside to the number of 100,000. 
Of these some 40,000 are in Manila, where they oc- 
cupy the chief shops and do most of the artisan work. 

The political history of the country continued to be 
a series of revolts, fights, and executions, and of dis- 
putes between the friars and the government; while 
Spain derived so little benefit from the islands that 
their abandonment was contemplated. De Mas, the 
historian, tells us, " For more than two centuries the 
Philippines had been for the crown of Spain a hotbed 
of so many disputes, anxieties, and expenses, that the 
abandonment of the colony was again and again pro- 
posed by the ministers; but the Catholic monarchs 
could never consent to the perdition of all the souls 
that had been conquered, and which it was still hoped 
to conquer, in these regions." 



330 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

A monopoly of the tobacco crop was established 
by Captain-General Basco in 1778, and was main- 
tained for more than a century, being given up in 
1882. In 1785 the old system of commerce was 
replaced by the establishment of the '* Company of 
the Philippines," which was granted a monopoly of 
trade, the king of Spain having a share in its profits. 
This monopoly was sustained until 1834, when the 
increasing demands of foreign nations forced Spain to 
open the country to commerce, though under severe 
restrictions. The growth of steam navigation in- 
creased the trade of the islands, and the opening of the 
Suez Canal, which brought Manila within thirty-two 
days' steam traffic of Barcelona, doubled the com- 
merce, which had reached by the close of the Spanish 
period an annual total of $30,000,000. 

Revolts of the natives have taken place from time 
to time, those of the nineteenth century occurring in 
1823, 1827, 1844, and 1872. The greatest and most 
persistent of them was that which began in 1896. In 
this severe outbreak, which continued until near the 
end of 1897, the hatred of the natives seemed espe- 
cially directed towards the friars, whom they looked 
upon as their chief enemies, and treated with brutal 
cruelty when they fell into their hands. 

Spain sought to put down the insurrection in the 
manner she has elsewhere employed, by cruel treat- 
ment and wholesale execution of her prisoners of war, 
who were publicly shot under circumstances of re- 
volting barbarity. Finding that they could not be 
subdued by force of arms, the Spanish authorities 
treated with the leaders, ofifering a large sum of money 
to Agulnaldo and his fellow-generals, and promising 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 331 

an extensive system of reforms. As usual with Spain, 
the bargain was not kept. Aguinaldo and some others 
retired to Hong-Kong with their share of the subsidy. 
The leaders who remained in the islands, trusting to 
Spanish faith, were seized and executed. The prom- 
ised reforms were ignored, the governor denying that 
he had pledged himself. As a result of this lack of 
honesty the rebels were soon again in arms; their 
anger being particularly directed against the friars, to 
whose influence they ascribed the dishonesty of the 
Spanish authorities. 

In 1898 came the most important event in the his- 
tory of the Philippine Islands, the capture of Manila 
by an American fleet and army and the cession of the 
entire group by treaty to the United States. The de- 
tails of this event cannot be given in this brief sketch, 
and are too familiar to readers to need description. 
It will suffice to say that an American squadron under 
Admiral Dewey appeared in Manila harbor in the 
night of April 30, and on May i attacked and de- 
stroyed the Spanish fleet. The city was blockaded 
until August 13, when an assault was made by the 
army and fleet and it fell into the hands of the 
American forces. 

Meanwhile, on May 24, Aguinaldo and his fellow- 
leaders returned from Hong-Kong on an American 
war-vessel and put themselves at the head of the rebel 
forces, who immediately invested and besieged Ma- 
nila. Their assaults continued until the capture of 
the city by the Americans, and they remained under 
arms during the subsequent period of negotiations be- 
tween the United States and Spain. 

In the treaty of peace, signed December 10, 1898, 



332 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the whole group of the PhiHppine Islands was ceded 
by Spain to the United States, which country agreed 
to pay Spain the sum of $20,000,000 as a recompense 
for improvements made in the islands. The natives, 
however, continued in arms, under the leadership of 
Aguinaldo, with the claim that they had fought for 
freedom, not for a new master, and a demand for in- 
dependence. The proclamation of President McKin- 
ley, under date of December 30, 1898, ofifered the 
natives home rule in the fullest sense, giving them a 
voice in the local government, the right to hold offi- 
cial positions, a fair judiciary, and freedom of speech 
and of the press; all this under the supreme direction 
of the United States. 

These concessions were not satisfactory to the Phi- 
lippine leaders; and, as the debate in the United States 
Senate concerning the treaty promised to end in its 
ratification, Aguinaldo grew openly hostile, and finally 
issued a declaration of war against the United States, 
and made an attack upon the American outposts at 
Manila on the evening of February 4, 1899. Fighting 
continued during the 5th and 6th, the result being a 
defeat of the native forces, which were driven back 
for miles and suffered severe loss. They continued 
in arms, however, and on February 22, and subse- 
quently, an effort was made to burn the city, which 
was set on fire at various points. About the same 
time two important islands, Negros and Cebu, sub- 
mitted to the authority of the United States. 

Meanwhile, on February 6, the treaty of peace was 
ratified in the Senate of the United States, and this 
country succeeded Spain as the ruling power in the 
Philippines. Great diversity of opinion continued to 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 333 

exist, however, as to whether these islands should be 
held permanently or only until their inhabitants should 
prove themselves capable of self-government. This 
question remains an open one, and military rule will 
be maintained in the islands until the policy of the 
United States shall be matured. 



IL PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 

GEOGRAPHY- 

The Philippine Islands, or the Philippines as they 
are usually called (Spanish, Islas Filipinas), form an 
extensive group or archipelago lying off the southeast 
coast of Asia, and separated by the China Sea from 
China on the northwest and Indo-China on the west, 
the port of Manila being about 630 miles from that of 
Hong-Kong. On the east extends a broad stretch of 
the Pacific; on the north a number of small islands 
reach out towards Formosa; and on the south lies the 
great island of Borneo, with which the Philippines 
have two lines of connection, — a western one by the 
islands of Palawan and Balabac and an eastern one 
by way of the Sulu Archipelago. To the south lie two 
deep ocean abysses, the Sulu or Mindoro Sea, extend- 
ing to North Borneo, and the Celebes Sea, lying be- 
tween Mindanao and Celebes, with a width of 300 
miles. The Sulu Islands are practically a part of the 
group, and were included in the cession by Spain to 
the United States. The archipelago, thus constituted, 
extends from 4° 45' to 21° north latitude, and between 
116° 40' and 126° 30' east longitude, or through a 
length, north and south, of over 1050 miles, and a 
width, east and west, of approximately 700 miles. 

The total number of islands in the group is un- 
known. They have never been counted, and the esti- 
mates as to their number range all the way from 600 
334 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 335 

to 2000. The actual number does not probably ex- 
ceed 1200, if every barren rock be included. The land 
area is similarly unsettled, a mean between the various 
estimates being about 115,000 square miles. Numer- 
ous as the islands are, the great majority are unim- 
portant in size, many being of minute area, mere 
rocks or sand-spits, while very few are of sufficient 
extent to have any geographical or political impor- 
tance. There are several hundred large enough to be 
habitable. 

The largest two of the Philippine Islands, respec- 
tively the farthest north and the farthest south, are 
Luzon and Mindanao, — the former of 40,885, the lat- 
ter of 37,256 square miles area. Between these two 
lies a group known as the Visayas, and embracing a 
number of islands of considerable size and importance, 
the largest of which are Samar (5300 square miles), 
Leyte (3090 square miles), Bohol (925 square miles), 
Cebu (1650 square miles), Negros (2300 square miles), 
and Panay (4600 square miles). This group includes 
in addition several smaller islands of some agricultural 
importance. 

North of the Visayas, near Luzon, lies Masbate 
(131 5 square miles), and farther east the large but 
little explored Mindoro (4050 square miles). The 
smaller islands in these groups that call for mention 
are Guimaras, 215; Burias, 190; Ticao, 121; Tablas, 
327; and Sibuyan, 159 square miles; while near Min- 
doro on its eastern side is the flourishing island of 
Marinduque, 348 square miles. Two other islands of 
some importance, Polillo and Catanduanes, lie oflf the 
eastern coast of Luzon. 

Southwest of Mindoro lie the Calamianes, a great 



336 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

cluster of very small islands, of which the two largest 
are Calamian and Busuanga (416 square miles). 
South of these extends the large island of Palawan 
or Paragua (4150 square miles), which has the dis- 
tinction of being one of the narrowest islands for its 
length in the world. While extending 230 miles to 
the southwest, it is nowhere more than thirty miles 
wide, and narrows in some localities to ten miles. It 
reaches to the vicinity of the north cape of Borneo, 
from which it is separated by Balabac and some 
smaller islands and Balabac Strait. 

Between Palawan and Mindanao and southwest of 
the Visayas extends the deep Mindoro Sea, and south- 
west of Mindanao stretches the Sulu group, practi- 
cally an extension of its southwestern peninsula. 
This cluster of islands, known as the Sulu or Jolo 
Archipelago, lies between the Mindoro and the Cele- 
bes Seas, and extends nearly to the northeastern cape 
of Borneo. The group consists of about 150 islands, 
with a total area of approximately 948 square miles, 
the largest islands being Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi- 
Tawi. This group — formerly, with a portion of north- 
ern Borneo, an independent state — was annexed by 
Spain in 1878, and is now classed with the Philippines. 
Many of the smaller islands are uninhabited, but the 
larger possess an industrious Mohammedan popula- 
tion. 

As compared in area with American States, the 
whole group of the Philippines is of nearly the same 
extent as the New England States with New York 
and New Jersey. Luzon, the largest island, is of 
nearly the same size as Ohio. The areas of the prin- 
cipal islands above given are approximate only. They 



PfiYSICAL CONDITIONS. 337 

are so stated in Spanish official estimates; but the 
true areas of most of the islands are far from being 
known. 

GEOLOGY. 

An irregular mountain system, known in Luzon as 
the Caraballos, runs through the central region of 
each of the larger islands, and the whole group is, 
as a general rule, mountainous or hilly. Little more 
than a third of the whole area is arable land. The 
principal ranges extend in a north and south direction, 
with a tendency to deflect to the east or west, the 
system spreading southward in a faxi-like shape from 
Luzon as a radiating point. None of the mountains 
exceeds 9000 feet in height, with the exception of Apo, 
in Mindanao, which late observations indicate to be 
over 10,000 feet high. The other lofty peaks, so far 
as known, are Halcon, in Mindoro (8865 feet), Mayon, 
in Luzon (8900 feet), Malaspina, in Negros (8192 feet), 
while several others range from 6000 to 8000 feet. 

Of Philippine geology comparatively little is 
known, and the geologist has there a very difficult 
task. As yet there have been few cuttings or exca- 
vations to lay bare the structure of the rocks, while 
much of the surface is covered with so dense a vege- 
tation that there is little from which to draw conclu- 
sions. There is reason to believe that much of the 
archipelago is of recent date, having been uplifted 
from below the sea-level. The evidences of this are 
the large tracts of coral reef seen at many points along 
the shores, and raised beaches of considerable eleva- 
tion at a distance inland. These contain shells like 
those now living in the neighboring waters, indicating 
that they lay beneath the seas at no remote date. Ele- 

22 



338 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

vation and subsidence seem to be still going on, and 
the limestone caps that cover some of the islands, as 
Cebu, indicate that the ocean once flowed where they 
now stand. The basic rocks of the islands appear to 
be of old formations, largely schists, and in the north 
of Luzon granite. 

What is now southern Luzon was probably in a 
recent period a group of separate islands, since the 
neck of land between several of the southern bays is 
composed of alluvium, tuffs, and marls, in which 
modern shells are embedded. Drasche has traced in 
southern Luzon gneiss and chloritic slates, diabases, 
gabbros, and eocene limestones, with volcanic min- 
erals and the recent formations above mentioned. In 
northern Luzon he discovered gneiss, diorite, proto- 
genic and chloritic slates, and an extensive system 
of stratified conglomerates and sandstones. The more 
modern rocks traced by him were formations of vol- 
canic origin, tufifs and tufaceous sandstones, banks of 
limestone, marl, and coral, and the results of late vol- 
canic eruptions, of which there are evidences almost 
everywhere. The coralliferous limestones — which pre- 
sent the unusual feature of stratification — indicate 
their late origin by the fact that their corals belong to 
genera which still exist in the Indian Ocean, and are 
similar, though not identical, in species. 

These sparse results of geological observation are 
likely to be added to largely under the new political 
relations of the islands, since scientists will doubtless 
find better opportunities for observation in the engi- 
neering works which will probably be undertaken. A 
considerable extension of the railroad system is among 
the probabilities of the near future, and mining opera- 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 339 

tions also promise to be undertaken; these offering 
opportunities to the geologist as well as to the prac- 
tical man of business. 

VOLCANOES. 

Volcanoes have played an important part in the for- 
mation of the Philippines, and have left traces of their 
former activity in all directions. Most of them, how- 
ever, have long been dead and silent, comparatively 
few of the once numerous group being now active. 
Of these the three of leading importance are in 
southern Luzon — Taal, Bulusan, and Mayon or 
Albay. 

Mayon, the largest and most active of the existing 
volcanoes, is strikingly regular in form, presenting 
a perfect cone which rises from a base of about fifty 
miles in circuit to a height of 8900 feet. It forms one 
of the most prominent landmarks visible from sea. A 
constant smoke, sometimes accompanied by flame, 
rises from its crater, and subterranean sounds, often 
heard at a distance of many leagues, issue from its 
depths. Evidences of former eruptions cover the 
whole country around. 

In 1767 this mountain sent up a cone of flame, with 
a base of forty feet diameter, for ten days, and poured 
forth a wide stream of lava for two months. A month 
afterwards came from the crater great floods of water, 
which overflowed the river channels and did wide- 
spread damage. The eruption of 181 2 destroyed 
several towns and was fatal to 12,000 persons, forming 
deposits near the mountain deep enough to bury the 
tallest trees. Similar disasters were occasioned in 
1867, and several later eruptions have taken place. 



340 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

In 1876 a terrible tropical storm burst upon the moun- 
tain, and the floods of rain, sweeping from its sides 
the loose volcanic debris, brought destruction to the 
neighboring country, more than 6000 houses being 
completely ruined. Its latest destructive eruption took 
place in 1888. 

Bulusan, in the southern extremity of Luzon, re- 
sembles Vesuvius in shape. After a long period of 
inaction it began to smoke again in 1852. But the 
most interesting of the volcanoes of Luzon is that of 
Taal, which lies forty-five miles almost due south of 
Manila, and is remarkable as being one of the lowest 
volcanoes in the world, its height being only 850 feet 
above sea-level. Another striking feature about it is 
its location on a small island in the middle of a large 
lake, known as Bombon or Bongbong. There are 
traditions — doubtful ones — that this lake, 100 square 
miles in extent, was formed by a terrible eruption in 
1700, by which a lofty mountain, 8000 or 9000 feet 
high, was destroyed. Evidences of great former erup- 
tions are shown by vast deposits of porous tufa in the 
surrounding country. 

The crater is an immense, cup-shaped depression, 
a mile or more in diameter and about 800 feet deep. 
When recently visited by Worcester it contained three 
boiling lakelets of strange-colored water, one of dirty 
brown hue, one intensely yellow, and one of a brilliant 
emerald green. It is still steaming and fuming, and 
in past times occasionally broke into frightful activity, 
its three most violent eruptions being in 1716, I749' 
and 1754. In the last-named year the earth quaked 
with the throes of the mountain, and vast quantities 
of volcanic dust were hurled into the air, sufficient to 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 341 

make it dark at midday for many leagues around and 
to cover with dust and ashes the distant roofs of Ma- 
nila. Fluid lava poured into the lake, which boiled 
with the heat, while vast showers of stones and ashes 
from the crater fell into its waters. 

There are smoking cones in north Luzon and on 
the Babuyanes group to the north, and extinct volca- 
noes in many localities. The other islands have their 
volcanoes. Negros possesses the active peak of Ma- 
laspina, and on the island of Camiguin, about ninety 
miles to the southeast, a new volcano burst out in 
1876. In the large island of Mindanao there are three 
volcanoes, of which Cottabato was in eruption in 1856, 
and is still active at intervals. Apo, the loftiest of 
them all, estimated to be 10,312 feet high, has three 
summits, enclosing the great crater, which is now 
extinct and filled with water. 

Other evidences of volcanic activity arc deposits of 
sulphur, which occurs abundantly in the island of 
Leytc, the existence of hot springs in various locali- 
ties, and the earthquakes to which the islands are sub- 
ject. Of these there are many on record, the most 
destructive one of recent times being in 1863, when 
400 people were killed and 2000 injured, while nu- 
merous buildings were wrecked. In 1880 there was 
great destruction of property in Manila and elsewhere 
in Luzon, though no lives were lost. In 1675 an 
earthquake in Mindanao opened a passage to the sea, 
and a vast plain emerged. These convulsions of the 
earth aflfect the style of buildings, which are rarely 
more than two stories high and arc lightly built, trans- 
lucent oyster-shells being used instead of glass in their 
windows. 



342 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

LUZON. 

It is impossible in brief space to give any extended 
idea of the physical conformation of the numerous 
islands of the Philippine group, and we shall confine 
ourselves to a concise description of the larger. 
Luzon, the largest, is composed of a compact northern 
portion, about 340 miles long, from whose southeast 
corner stretches an irregular peninsula through a 
length of 180 miles, formed by a series of mountain 
ranges. The main trunk of the island is abundantly 
mountainous, the Caraballos highlands being nearly 
sixty leagues in length and sending two ranges north- 
ward, one skirting the eastern coast, the other keep- 
ing twenty-five or thirty miles from the western. Be- 
tween these two ranges, known as the Sierra Oriental 
and the Sierra Occidental, lies the basin of the greatest 
river system of the Philippines, the Rio Grande dc 
Cagayan, which receives numerous affluents from the 
mountains to east and west, and waters a great fertile 
valley, 200 miles long by 100 miles wide. Two other 
large rivers, the Abra and the Agno, rise on the west- 
ern slopes of the Sierra Occidental and flow westward 
to the ocean. Smaller rivers and streams are abun- 
dant, the island being well watered. 

Southwestward from the mountain system stretches 
a broad extent of lowlands, comparatively flat in sur- 
face, and forming one of the richest agricultural re- 
gions of the archipelago. Tt reaches southward to 
the bay of Manila, and is watered by the lower Agno 
and its tributaries and the Rio Grande de Pampanga, 
whose waters flow into Manila Bay by more than 
twenty mouths, and serve a useful purpose in the con- 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 343 

vcyance of agricultural produce to the capital. In 
these lowlands are a number of large lakes. 

West of this flat country is the coast range known 
as the Cordillera de Zambales, whose peaks reach a 
height of 5000 or 6000 feet, and whose northward ter- 
mination is in the peninsula which forms the Gulf of 
Lingayan, while its southern promontory helps to 
make the bay of Manila. 

East and south of Manila Bay the country again be- 
comes hilly, and in parts mountainous, though much 
of this region is occupied by the large body of water 
known as Laguna de Bay, or Bay Lake, twenty-five 
miles long by twenty-one wide, and 350 square miles 
in area, its outlet being the Pasig River. The depth of 
this great basin is rarely more than four fathoms. 
Lake Bombon, from whose centre rises the Taal vol- 
cano, is fourteen by eleven miles in dimensions. 

MINDANAO. 

As Luzon practically bounds the group on the 
north, so does the other large island known as Min- 
danao or Maguindanao on the south, though a few 
small islands lie north of Luzon and the Sulu group 
extends south of Mindanao. This island is extremely 
mountainous, its principal range being the Rangaya 
or Sugat Cordillera, which runs from southeast to 
northwest, bisecting the island, and curves downward 
into the great peninsula of Zamboanga, a broad west- 
ward bend towards the Sulu Archipelago. At its 
eastern extremity it bends south to form the peninsula 
of Butulan. 

There are other ranges, one traversing the eastern 
side of the island from north to south. The lowlands 



344 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

between these ranges contain a number of lakes and 
are traversed by rivers of more extent and importance 
than those of Luzon. The Rio Grande de Mindanao 
follows the valley between the Rangaya and the Tiru- 
ray ranges, rising in the north and flowing south and 
west. It is connected with two great lakes, Ligaua- 
san and Buluan, which practically become one during 
the rainy season. This stream is navigable as far as 
Matingcahuan, a distance of seventy or eighty miles. 
On the north side of the Rangaya Mountains the 
river Agus flows from the great crater-lake of Lanao 
to the sea. Associated with this is a group of small 
crater-lakes, to which the island probably owes its 
title of Maguindanao. Its more common title, Min- 
danao, seems to have a somewhat similar origin, as it 
signifies "man of the lake." The largest river, the 
Butuan, or Agusan, is also connected with important 
lakes. It rises in the Kinabuhan Mountains, within 
a few miles of the south coast, and pursues a sinuous 
course northward through the valley west of the 
range, emptying into Butuan Bay on the north after 
a flow of more than 200 miles. In its lower course 
it is navigable for craft of considerable size, but for 
a few miles only. There are other valleys traversed 
by streams, as that of the Cagayan. The soil in gen- 
eral, and especially in the river and lake regions, is 
remarkable for its fertility. 

THE SMALLER ISLANDS. 

The smaller islands may be more briefly described. 
Samar, the most easterly with the exception of Min- 
danao, is separated from the southeastern cape of 
Luzon by a channel ten miles wide. It is 120 miles 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 345 

long by 60 wide, is hilly, but not mountainous, and is 
well watered, possessing several rivers of some im- 
portance. It contains a very large amount of valuable 
timber. Leyte lies southwest of Samar, from which 
it is separated by a narrow but extremely beautiful 
strait. It is 100 miles long and 30 wide. Southwest 
of this island lies Bohol, a small island, of compact 
shape; west of which and of Leyte is the important 
island of Cebu, the seat of the first settlement in the 
Philippines. It approaches Palawan in length and 
narrowness, being 135 miles long while its greatest 
width is 30 miles. Its chief town, Cebu, is the capital 
of the Visayas group. This island has no high moun- 
tains, though steep and broken hills diversify its in- 
terior. Its forests have almost A^anished, but the 
country is difficult to traverse, cultivation being easy 
only along the coast. 

The large island of Negros Hes west of Cebu, from 
which it is separated by a long strait fifteen miles in 
width. It is mountainous, its highest peak being the 
active volcano, Malaspina, or Canloon, 8192 feet high. 
The mountains are richly clothed with forest, peopled 
by savage tribes; but the lowlands are highly fertile, 
and Negros is perhaps the richest of all the islands, 
for its size. It possesses a navigable river, the Danao. 
To the northwest lies Panay, the seat of Iloilo, the 
second port of the archipelago. The forests of this 
island, like those of Cebu, have nearly disappeared, 
and with them the wild inhabitants, though some may 
still exist in the high mountains of the northwest. 
The soil has considerable fertility and much sugar is 
raised. 

Northwest of Panay and south of Luzon, from 



346 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

which latter it is but ten miles distant, lies the large 
island of Mindoro, as yet but little known, though the 
Steere exploring expedition recently made several 
journeys into its interior. The mountains of its cen- 
tral region contain a number of high peaks, the loftiest 
being Mount Halcon, 8865 feet high. Extensive 
grassy plains lie between the mountains and the west 
coast, while the eastern lowlands are heavily timbered 
and crossed by numerous rivers. Primeval forest 
covers most of the surface, within which dwell the 
Mangyans, a savage but peaceful tribe, which the 
members of the Steere expedition were among the 
first to study. 

The long, slender island of Palawan, which, with 
its continuing isles, fills most of the interval between 
Mindoro and Borneo, is similarly unexplored. A 
chain of mountains extends through most of its 
length, though there is said to be a large plain in its 
northern section. Its streams are necessarily short, 
its average width being but twenty miles; but there 
are many of them. Its woodlands constitute its prin- 
cipal wealth, it being rich in valuable woods, such as 
ebony, logwood, and ipil, a very hard wood which can 
be cut in logs of great length. The soil, though 
highly fertile, has as yet been little cultivated. 

The smaller islands we may dismiss briefly. Mas- 
bate, west of Samar, is mainly utilized for grazing, 
having extensive grassy plains, on which large herds 
of cattle and numerous buffaloes and horses find pas- 
turage. Marinduque, a small island east of Mindoro, 
is populous and flourishing, being largely devoted to 
rice and the hemp plant. The islands of the Sulu 
group have been industriously cultivated, and Worces- 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 347 

ter found the forests of Sulu almost entirely composed 
of fruit trees, the old forest having been cleared away 
and these planted. 

HARBORS. 

Chief among the harbors of the Philippines is that 
of Manila, whose magnificent bay is among the best 
known and most frequented of the harbors of the 
eastern world. This beautiful body of water is thirty 
miles long and twenty-five wide, having a circumfer- 
ence of about 120 miles. Manila lies near its inner ex- 
tremity. Its great expanse is injurious to it as a har- 
bor of refuge, anchorage being unsafe during a severe 
storm. It is especially dangerous during the typhoon 
season, and on more than one occasion large ships 
have been wrecked almost under the city walls. The 
shoal water in front of the city prevents the near ap- 
proach of large vessels, which are obliged to seek 
shelter at Cavite, eight miles from the mouth of the 
Pasig River. Vessels of fourteen or more feet draught 
are obliged to lie out in the bay and discharge part of 
their cargo by means of lighters before they can enter 
the Pasig, along which are the principal wharves and 
warehouses. The Pasig is usually crowded with small 
vessels. Manila is built on low ground, its highest 
point being not many feet above tide-water, and is 
divided into two parts by the Pasig, through which the 
waters of the large lake, Laguna de Bay, fourteen 
miles distant, find their way to the bay. 

Of the remaining Philippine harbors only two, 
Iloilo and Cebu, are of commercial importance, these 
and Manila being the only ports which have any 
foreign trade. Iloilo, on the southeastern coast of 
Panay, ranks next to Manila, though at a large re- 



348 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

move, in commercial importance. It is situated near 
the sea-shore, access for small steamers being attained 
by means of a creek, which has been deepened by. 
dredging. The outer harbor is well protected and 
naturally good; the island of Guimaras, which fronts 
Panay at this point, forming a sheltered passage, of 
from two to six miles in breadth, with deep water and 
good anchorage. The creek has five fathoms over its 
entrance bar, and could readily be deepened within 
by dredging. 

The island of Panay possesses another harbor of 
local importance, San Jose de Buenavista, the port 
of the province of Antique. Here a breakwater has 
been constructed, and whaling and other foreign ves- 
sels have long been in the habit of calling for water 
and fresh provisions. It has little trade, as the sur- 
rounding country is thinly settled and undeveloped. 

Cebu until recently surpassed Iloilo in commercial 
importance, but has now fallen to the third rank. It 
lies on the east coast of the island of the same name, 
and possesses a good harbor, which needs, however, 
to be entered with caution, the channel leading to 
it presenting difficulties. The points of danger are 
buoyed, and care only is needed for a safe entrance. 
The principal articles shipped from this port are the 
neighboring products of sugar, hemp, tobacco, and 
sapan-wood. 

The other ports include Zamboango on Mindanao, 
Tacloban on Leyte, Sual and Albay on Luzon, and 
some others of little importance. These are only con- 
cerned in the inter-island trade. Zamboango is the 
most southerly town of importance in the group, 
being seated at the extremity of the long western 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 349 

peninsula of Mindanao, opposite the island of Basilan. 
Albay similarly lies near the extremity of the penin- 
sula of Luzon, at the bottom of a deep bay. Sual 
is situated on the southern shore of the deep Lingayen 
Gulf, on the middle west coast of Luzon, and at the 
mouth of the Agno River, a stream of considerable 
depth, but with a bar at its mouth that prevents en- 
trance from the sea. 

None of these ports have other than local impor- 
tance, though some of them, such as Sual, have pos- 
sibilities in case of a fuller development of the re- 
sources of the islands. There are numerous bays 
around the circuit of the Philippines, some of which, 
in the coming future of the islands, may be utilized 
as harbors. Among these we may mention Subig 
Bay, which was entered by vessels of Dewey's squad- 
ron on its way to Manila, in search of the Spanish 
fleet. This bay is land-locked, has deep water, and 
is considered by Admiral Dewey the best harbor in 
the islands for coaling purposes. In the centre of the 
north coast, at the mouth of the Cagayan, is an exten- 
sive bay, guarded from the sea by a small island at 
its mouth, its harbor facilities being equal to and safer 
than those of Manila Bay. Here is the town of Aparri, 
which in time may become a rival to Manila, being 
twenty-four hours nearer Hong-Kong and 400 miles 
nearer San Francisco. 

CLIMATE, 

The Philippines extend through many degrees of 
latitude, from near the equator to the vicinity of the 
tropic of Cancer, and have moreover a considerable 
diversity of altitude, with the result that there are 



350 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

climatic differences between separated regions. But 
the characteristics of the cHmate are in general those 
of the tropics, there being little to distinguish it from 
many other places in the Eastern tropics. According 
to a Spanish proverb, there are " Six months of dust, 
six months of mud, six months of everything;" indi- 
cating that though as a general statement the rainy 
season lasts one half and the dry season the other half 
of the year, there are months of uncertainty whether 
drought or humidity will prevail. 

The northern islands lie in the region of the ty- 
phoons, and here three seasons are usually recognized, 
— a hot, a wet, and a dry. The dry season begins 
in November and extends to February or March. 
During this period northerly winds prevail, and it is 
sufficiently cool to render woollen clothing comfort- 
able in the mornings, though it is never cold and 
there are no sudden changes of temperature. The 
sky is usually clear and the atmosphere bracing in 
this season, and to Europeans it is much the most en- 
joyable part of the year; though there is no season 
in which men can endure hard physical labor without 
discomfort from the heat. 

The hot season begins in March and continues until 
June; the heat becoming very oppressive during the 
latter portion of this period and before it is mitigated 
by the coming of the southerly monsoon. During 
May and June thunder-storms are frequent, and are 
often terrific in violence, — the rains being severe, the 
lightning fierce, and the thunder deafening. Many 
lose their lives by lightning-strokes, and houses are 
frequently swept away by the overflowing torrents. 

The southwest monsoon is fully established by June, 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 351 

bringing with it the specifically rainy season; torren- 
tial rains pouring down through the months of July, 
August, September, and October, with such violence 
that the low country is widely flooded, rivers overflow 
their banks, the lakes extend enormously, the roads 
become generally impassable, and travelling grows 
difificult and disagreeable. Even in December the 
effect of these rains shows itself in roads so deep in 
mud that carriages have to be abandoned and palan- 
quin bearers sink to their thighs in mire. 

This is the season of the typhoon, the terrific re- 
volving wind-storm which sweeps all to ruin before it, 
and which is similar in character to the destructive 
tornado of our w^estern plains. The force of the wind 
is such as to uproot the largest trees, unroof or carry 
away houses, and to imperil the stanchest ships. 
Vessels are occasionally borne ashore by the waves 
driven inward before a typhoon, and their bleaching 
ribs may be seen at intervals in some far inland paddy- 
field or low-lying farm. Fortunately for the people 
of the southern islands, the typhoon seldom occurs 
south of 9° or 10° north latitude. 

The close of the southwest monsoon is followed by 
a period of calms and variable winds, after which the 
northeast monsoon sets in, with its dry and bracing 
winds. The mountains affect the seasons, — a high 
range delaying the wet season for weeks, while the 
rains begin on the Pacific side of the eastern islands 
during the continuance of the northeast winds. 

These characteristics of the climate apply especially 
to the northern islands, the southern ones lying below 
the region of the trades and displaying different 
climatic conditions. The heat varies considerably in 



352 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

different islands, and no one locality can be taken as 
typical of the group. As the only careful and cour 
tinuous observations of rainfall and temperature, how- 
ever, are those made in the Jesuit observatory at Ma- 
nila, we must content ourselves with the figures there 
placed on record. 

The mean annual temperature of Manila Is 80° F., 
the thermometer having a total range of forty degrees, 
from 60° to 100°. It rarely goes above the latter 
figure. There is no month in the year in which the 
temperature does not reach as high as 90°, and the 
mean of the two coldest months, December and Janu- 
ary, is 'jy'' . That of the warmest month. May, is 84°. 
In the winter months nights of reasonable coolness 
can be looked for; but there is little relief night or day 
in the hot season, the deep humidity which then pre- 
vails adding greatly to the oppressiveness of the tem- 
perature. 

The average monthly rainfall, as recorded from 
1865 to 1896, is for the wettest month, September, 
15.01 inches, and nearly as much for July and August. 
It falls to 7.47 in October, 4.92 in November, and con- 
tinues low until June, the figures for February and 
March being respectively 0.47 and 0.65. The total 
annual rainfall averages 75.43 inches, the range of 
different years being from 120.98 to 33.65. The 
greatest monthly fall on record is 61.43 inches in Sep- 
tember, while the lowest record for the same month 
is two inches. 

DISEASES. 

Very varied opinions exist concerning the health- 
fulness of the Philippines and the effect of their 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 353 

climatic conditions on white men, these varying from 
the " lovely" of one author to the ''deadly" of another. 
One says that " for a tropical climate that of the 
islands may be considered healthful for people of the 
white race;" another asserts that "the climate of the 
Philippines is particularly severe and unhealthy," his 
proof being that of the Spanish soldiers sent there in 
1896, twenty-five per cent, died of disease within fif- 
teen months. 

Worcester, who had abundant opportunity to judge, 
ascribes the examples of unhcalthfulness to impru- 
dence, and concludes that if one is very careful in his 
diet, drinks only wholesome water, avoids excesses, 
does not unduly exert himself, and keeps out of the 
sun at midday, " he is likely to remain well, always 
supposing that he is fortunate enough to escape ma- 
larial infection." 

On the other hand, the story is told that "About 
eight years ago General-Manager Higgins, of the 
Manila and Dagupan Railway, having secured a con- 
cession from the Spanish government, organized in 
London a party of about forty Englishmen, — civil 
engineers and others, — who were to survey the route 
and build and afterwards assist in the operation and 
management of the railroad. Mr. Higgins gave spe- 
cial attention to the physical condition of his assistants, 
selecting only men that he believed could stand the 
severe climate of the archipelago. To-day not more 
than half the members of that party are alive." 

Malarial fevers are the most constant dangers of 
the foreigner who in any way exposes himself. Those 
of milder form may be easily shaken off, if promptly 
and vigorously treated; but the dreaded calentura per- 

23 



354 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

niciosa is a far more dangerous and malignant diease. 
It is rapid and violent, running its course in a few 
hours, and often ending in black vomit and death. 
Fortunately, it is very local in its occurrence, and the 
places subject to it are known and shunned as well by 
the natives as by the whites. Malaria also is absent 
from some islands, while others are veritable pest- 
holes. 

The malarial trouble may be in a measure capable 
of remedy. Sulu, once a fever centre, was made 
healthful by General Arolas, who, by filling the low 
places with coral sand and improving the drainage, 
nearly put an end to the disease. The same was done 
at Tataan, in Tawi-Tawi, by cutting off the neighbor- 
ing forest growth and clearing up the ground. The 
fever, previously very prevalent, almost disappeared. 

But such radical measures must be confined to the 
towns, and malaria will continue to prevail in the 
country. So far as the white population is concerned, 
one serious circumstance is that the climate is espe- 
cially severe on women and children, a fact which 
stands in the way of establishing a permanent Ameri- 
can or European population. The troubles are mainly 
malarial and digestive, the danger from epidemic dis- 
orders being slight. Small-pox is one of the perma- 
nent diseases, but its spread is rarely rapid, and most 
of the natives have it in childhood. 

Cholera occasionally, though rarely, visits the isl- 
ands. When it does come its ravages are severe, as 
the natives cannot be induced to take any precaution 
against it. It is the will of God, they say. A black 
dog runs down the street and the disease breaks out 
behind him. 



PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. 355 

Of the other diseases we may name leprosy, which 
fortunately is not common, and beriberi, which pre- 
vails to some extent. The malignant bubonic plague, 
so fatal in India and elsewhere in the East, has never 
established itself in the Philippines. On the whole, 
aside from malaria, there are no widely prevalent dis- 
eases, and most of the deleterious efifects upon whites 
are direct results of the tropical severity of the climate. 



IIL NATURAL PRODUCTIONS* 

FOREST TREES. 

The Philippines are exceptionally rich in forests, 
vast in dimensions and magnificent in aspect, covering 
immense regions of the islands, particularly in their 
mountain sections, and containing an unusual variety 
of valuable timber trees. Forest, indeed, is not every- 
where found. Some of the islands, as Cebu and 
Panay, have been nearly denuded of their trees by 
agriculturists, and this denudation is still going on, 
slowly but steadily. The native has no regard for 
trees. If he wishes to start a farm, he clears a tract 
of forest of the desired size, burns the felled timber, 
and plants the ground. In this, however, he is in no 
sense singular, his method being the same as that 
employed by the pioneer population of the United 
States. But the Philippine farmer has one strong 
enemy to contend with, which forces him to repeat 
his process of wood butchery. There is a strong, tall 
grass called cogon which in time is sure to invade his 
farm, and which defies his simple means of eradica- 
tion. So he abandons the farm to the grass, clears a 
second tract of woodland, and starts another planta- 
tion. 

The cogon takes such strong hold that no other 

plant can compete with it; and this vigorous pest 

seizes upon vast areas, once thickly forested, now 

known as cogonales. The plant is nearly useless, 

356 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 357 

though not quite so, since it serves for thatch, and its 
coarse stems arc used to some extent for fuel. In its 
young state it is also used for pasturage, the natives, 
at the end of the dry season, setting the old grass on 
fire, and cattle and horses feed greedily on the fresh 
young shoots which sprout up after the coming of the 
rains. 

The forests, as in the tropics generally, are dense 
in growth, and possess the usual number of vines, 
lianas, and thorns, so that passage through them can 
be had only by the constant use of a heavy machete. 
Such paths as the natives have made are difficult to 
traverse except by native feet. They have been worn 
smooth by much usage, and are slippery after rains, 
a fact to their detriment when they run along the 
trunks of fallen trees, as is often the case. 

The fiora of the Philippines contains nearly 4500 
species, belonging to 1223 genera. Of these fifty 
genera are of ferns, which are very numerous, and 
there are many handsome orchids. The wealth of 
the forests in valuable woods is enormcais, many of 
the most useful timber trees being scarcely known 
outside the islands. More than 200 kinds of wood 
have been thought worthy of testing in the Manila 
arsenal, among which are no less than fifty varieties 
of hard-wood lumber, few of which have been offered 
for sale abroad. There is a large local use, but as yet 
Japan and China have been the only considerable 
foreign users of Philippine timber. 

The woods vary in color from the jet-black ebony 
to the light-hued cedar, and in some cases are proof 
against the most destructive enemies of building tim- 
ber. Some of them are specially valuable for under- 



358 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

water construction, as they resist the attacks of the 
teredo, while others defy the white ant, that most 
annoying of tropical insects. 

Of the hard-woods of the Philippine forests, the 
best known and most esteemed is the teak-like molave, 
called by the natives " the queen of Woods," a heavy 
brown timber, almost as hard as steel, and of great 
strength. It resists the action of water for years, is 
proof against the attacks of the white ant, and is used 
for all purposes. Its firm surface permits of fine 
carving. 

The dongon, another fine building wood, is often 
substituted for the molave, though not for wharfage, 
as it does not resist the teredo. There are two others 
which, like the molave, resist the white ant, the ipily 
a hard, strong wood abounding in Luzon, and the 
yacal. Both of these are much used for building. 

Among the other useful trees may be named the 
acre, an abundant timber, used for buildings and ship- 
ping; the antipoloy whose light but strong wood is 
nearly as impervious as the molave; the holonguitay 
an abundant timber which is used for fine furniture; 
the calantas (native cedar), found throughout the 
islands and used for canoe-making; the beautifully 
veined and spotted camagon, an easily polished wood 
which is used for fine furniture; the gidjo, an abun- 
dant wood, whose tough and elastic timber is much 
esteemed for carriage-wheels and ship-building; and 
the lauan, abounding in the forests, and much used 
for canoes. It was formerly employed for the outside 
planking of galleons, as its light, stringy wood did not 
splinter under the impact of cannon-balls. 

Ebony has been found in some quantity, and much 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 359 

more may exist in the forest depths. Two woods 
somewhat resembling it are the mabolo and the mala- 
tapay. These are handsome woods, similar in char- 
acter, — the former black streaked with yellow, the 
latter black striped with red, and both useful for fine 
furniture. The narra is a strong, hard wood, its color 
from light straw to deep red, used for cabinet pur- 
poses and susceptible of a high polish. The palo-maria 
yields a strong, knotty, and crooked timber, very use- 
ful for ship timber. Another tree used for ship timber 
and building purposes is the panao or balao, which also 
yields a resin used for lighting purposes by the na- 
tives and the talay oil, which destroys insects in wood. 
The bansalque, or bullet-tree, yields a wood hard 
enough to be driven like a nail. It furnishes treenails 
for ship-building and makes splendid tool handles. 

The above is far from exhausting the list of useful 
forest trees, there being numerous others which have 
been employed for various purposes. The list given, 
however, includes the best known and most useful, the 
chief of all being the ubiquitous molave. 

Of the native plants growing outside the forests, 
the bamboo is the most common, the most beautiful, 
and the most useful. There are no more charming 
features of the scenery than its graceful bamboo 
groups, scattered profusely on hills and plains and 
along streams, their light branches, waving in the 
smallest breeze, giving perpetual life to the landscape. 
It supplies the native with nearly all the materials for 
his house, and for sledges, agricultural implements, 
bows, arrows, bow-strings, lance-heads, forks, spoons, 
cups, fences, water-pipes, musical instruments, and a 
host of other purposes. 



36o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Other very useful plants are the canes, rattans, and 
other branches of the calamus family. They grow to a 
great length, the bejuco, or bush-rope, a rattan, being 
frequently 300 feet long. It is said to be found more 
than three times that length in Mindanao. These 
plants are used for ropes and cables, and when split 
are employed to tie together the parts of house frames, 
fences, carts, canoes, etc., also for bed-making, chair- 
seating, and many other purposes. The fibres can be 
divided into very fine threads, which are woven into 
delicate textures, some of which, as hats and cigar- 
cases, are sold at very high prices. 

The cocoa palm, common here as everywhere in the 
tropics, grows on land too poor to bear anything else, 
each tree yielding an average of twenty nuts a month. 
These, where water communication permits, are made 
into rafts and floated to market; otherwise they are 
hauled on bufifalo sledges. The bamboo itself is not 
of more use to the natives. Every part of the plant is 
turned to account, — trunk, branches, leaves, fruit 
alike. The juices yield oil, wine, and spirits. Cables 
are made from the bark, which is also used for caulk- 
ing. The trunk often forms the frame and the leaves 
the roof of the native houses. The leaf fibres are 
woven into cloth, the fruit fibres made into brushes. 
The shell of the fruit is made into spoons, cups, etc., 
the burnt shell used as a black dye, the roasted root 
as a cure for dysentery. 

The nipa palm is little less useful to the Philippine 
native. This common plant grows abundantly in 
swampy places, and its leaves are widely used for the 
thatch and sides of houses. Its sap furnishes an in- 
toxicating drink, and strong alcohol, of excellent 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 361 

quality, is distilled from it. The palma hrava is much 
valued for the great hardness of its outer wood, whicfi 
adapts it to pier building, it resisting water indefinitely. 
By removing the soft inner fibre, hollow tubes of 
large size, excellent for water-pipes, are made. 
Another palm highly esteemed by the natives is the 
arcca, yielding the betel-nuts so much used for chew- 
ing. The tree is a graceful 'one, which is planted 
thickly in the villages, each tree yielding annually from 
200 to 800 nuts. 

FRUIT AND FOOD PLANTS. 

Fruits are very abundant in the Philippines, the 
banana in particular. Of this prolific and useful plant 
there are said to be more than seventy varieties, the 
fruit varying from tiny, pear-like specimens to huge 
examples a foot and a half in length. This every- 
where present plant forms one of the important arti- 
cles of food. The banana of the Philippines, however, 
does not, as a rule, bear a high record for flavor; and 
the same is said of the pineapple and the orange, the 
native orange being very poor and never coming to 
perfection. 

Hardly any of the tropical fruits reaches here the 
perfection attained elsewhere, except the mango, in- 
troduced from the West Indies, which gains an unsur- 
passed flavor in Philippine soil. The fame of the Ma- 
nila mango extends throughout the East. The guava, 
similarly brought from the American tropics, has 
spread from island to island; birds greedily devouring 
the fruit and scattering the seeds. The cacao-tree, 
imported from Mexico nearly three centuries ago, 
flourishes here, and yields beans of excellent quality 
in good crops. 



362 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Nearly all the Malayan fruits are to be met with, in- 
cluding the jack-fruit, medlar, lanzan, and the much- 
prized mangosteen, which flourishes in the southern 
islands. In the extreme south, especially in Sulu and 
Tawi-Tawi, is found the famous durian, celebrated 
alike for its disgustingly unpleasant odor and the deli- 
cious flavor of its fruit. There may be mentioned in 
addition the papaw, chico, lime, citron, shaddock, 
bread-fruit, custard-apple, and tamarind. 

The edible vegetables, as in the other tropical 
islands, are largely composed of roots, some of which 
grow to an enormous size, weighing from fifty to 
seventy pounds. The yam and the sweet potato are 
widely grown and form an important part of the 
native food-stufifs. The ground-nut is also common. 
Potatoes and peas are grown to a small extent, and 
wheat is cultivated in the higher regions. Maize is 
raised, but does not do well. Other food plants and 
fruits include the melon, pumpkin, onion, cucumber, 
garlic, and various other vegetables brought from 
Mexico and planted in the church gardens, whence 
the^ have spread into wider cultivation. 

ANIMAL LIFE. 
The largest native animal of the Philippines, and 
the most useful, is the carabao, or water-bufTalo, which 
is found everywhere, both as the chief domestic animal 
of the natives and in the wild state, great herds of 
wild bufifaloes existing in the interior. The tamed 
animal is the mainstay of the native farmer, being em- 
ployed in all the labors of the field and in the transport 
of commodities, which it either carries on its back oi 
draws in wagons. 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 363 

Muddy water or pure mud is its delight, and it will 
have its share of this whatever else goes wrong. The 
worst thing about the buffalo is that it absolutely de- 
clines to work at midday if the sun is hot. Its daily 
mud-bath is also insisted on, the mud drying and 
caking on its back as an armor against insects. It will 
go where a horse cannot, but is unsafe to ride, for if 
urged against its inclinations it is likely to plunge into 
the nearest mud-bath; and if it should see a tempting 
slough it is apt to dive into the muddy depths, regard- 
less of what may be on its back. 

In its daily labors, however, the buffalo is tractable, 
and is well treated by the natives, who are obliged to 
humor its peculiarities, such as its insatiable appetite 
for mud. Another characteristic of this animal is a 
prejudice against white men, the scent of an European 
traveller being sometimes sufficient to set all the buffa- 
loes in a village on the stampede. This, of course, 
applies to those villages rarely visited by the whites. 
As a work animal the buffalo is extremely slow in its 
movements, and lacks the strength and endurance 
which its bulk promises. But its docility and patience 
commend it, it being easily guided even by a child. 

In his recent visit to Mindoro, Worcester was re- 
galed by the natives with stories of an extraordinary 
animal called by them the timarau, which haunted the 
. depths of the jungles. After considerable effort, he at 
length found and shot some specimens of this beast, 
which proved to be a small buffalo different in species 
from the domestic animal and exceedingly shy and 
alert. It is very vicious also, not hesitating to attack 
the much larger water-buffalo, which it kills. It is 
dangerous for man to approach. 



364 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Cattle are raised in large numbers for beef on some 
of the islands, and bullocks are used in the Visayas 
as draught animals. They have run wild on some 
islands, but these do not seem numerous. The horse 
is claimed to be from Andalusian stock, by way of 
Mexico, and is a small but very wiry animal, well- 
formed and sure-footed, and capable of carrying a 
weight seemingly out of proportion to its size. 

There are several species of deer on the archipelago, 
numerous enough in some places to be hunted for 
their meat. Goats are common, both their flesh and 
their milk being prized. Every village of the natives 
has its swine, and wild hogs are very abundant, espe- 
cially so in Tawi-Tawi. 

The native mammals of the Philippines are very 
few, these islands being not nearly so rich in species 
as the neighboring island of Borneo. There are no 
large carnivorous animals, the order bein'g principally 
represented by a small wild cat, two species of civet- 
cats, and the bintttrong. Of monkeys, the chongo 
(Macacus cynomolgus) is found in all the islands, and a 
monkey of pure white color occurs in Mindanao. The 
lemurs are represented by the strange little Tarsus, 
and there are two species of insectivora and several 
rodents, comprising some squirrels, a porcupine, and 
a few rats. The bats are the most numerous in species, 
there being twenty or thirty in all, some of them of 
very large size. Enormous colonies of large fruit-bats 
exist, which are taken for their fur and are sometimes 
eaten by the natives. 

Birds occur in great abundance, about 590 species 
being known. Many of these are rare and beautiful. 
They include pretty little paroquets, several peculiar 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 365 

woodpeckers, and a numl^er of species of pigeons, 
cockatoos, and mound builders. The principal game- 
bird is the jungle-fowl, which is very common, and is 
snared by the natives, either to be eaten or tamed. 
Other game-birds include fruit-pigeons and large 
hornbills, with snipe, curlew, and other water-birds. 

One species is of considerable commercial impor- 
tance, the swift, which builds the nest so much prized 
by the Chinese as a table delicacy. When perfectly 
clean, these nests are said to sometimes bring more 
than their weight in gold. They are made from a 
salivary secretion of the bird, which hardens on ex- 
posure to the air into a substance resembling in ap- 
pearance white glue. The birds build in caves or on 
the faces of inaccessible clififs, and those who rob 
them of their nests do so at imminent risk. They are 
found in several of the islands, the best being taken 
on the Peiion de Coron, a very precipitous island in 
the strait between Culion and Busuanga. 

Of the reptiles, crocodiles occur in large numbers 
in the lakes and streams, and are sometimes of great 
size. They destroy a considerable number of cattle, 
horses, and young buffaloes, pulling them into the 
water when they come down to drink. The natives 
do not show much fear of them, though man-eating 
crocodiles in Mindanao prove frequently fatal to the 
inhabitants. 

Serpents are also numerous, some of the species 
being very venomous. The deadly cobra occurs in 
Samar, Mindanao, and the Calamianes group, and the 
loss from snake-bite is serious in some localities. 
Most to be dreaded is the terrible dchcnpalay, whose 
bite is almost instantly fatal. It is short and slender. 



366 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and similar to a rice-leaf in appearance. Pythons 
occur, though rarely large. The small ones are very 
common, and are dealt in as commercial objects, 
being sold in the towns to keep about houses as rat- 
catchers. There are many lizards, among them the 
gecko, a disturbing creature from its noisy cry. The 
tortoise is of considerable importance to the natives, 
who conceal themselves when the animals are coming 
ashore; then run between them and the waves, turn 
over on their backs as many as they can, and return 
at leisure to remove them. 

Fresh-water fish are of minor importance, but the 
ocean species are of great variety and enormously 
abundant. There are also great numbers of shell- 
fish, including many edible varieties. The pearl oys- 
ter occurs near Sulu, and yields fine pearls and 
beautiful shells; another oyster occasionally yields 
handsome black pearls. The translucent shell which 
is substituted for window-glass is obtained from still 
another species. Some of the mollusks are of enor- 
mous size, the taclova shells, which are used for baptis- 
mal fonts, sometimes weighing 200 pounds. 

The usual variety and annoyance of tropical insects 
exist, among the worst of them being the locusts, 
which appear in countless myriads every few years, 
causing devastation to the growing crops, though the 
natives obtain some recompense by frying and eating 
the insects. There is a large beetle which is also eaten, 
and various other insects and larvae are used as food 
by the natives. 

Fire-flies are abundant and brilliant, and very many 
beautiful butterflies occur; while there are three species 
of honey-bees, one of them a large, dark-colored kind 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 367 

which builds great combs on the under side of 
branches. The honey and grubs are devoured by the 
natives, and the wax is of vahie for candles used in 
religious ceremonies. 

The most annoying of the insects is the white ant, 
a burrowing creature whose destructive powers are 
almost incredible. Numerous stories of its ravages 
are extant, one relating to its inroad upon the robes 
and other fabrics used in the service of the mass. On 
the 19th of March, 1838, the garments, ornaments, 
etc., after use in a certain church, were placed in a 
trunk made of narra wood; and on the following day, 
some dirt being seen near the trunk, it was opened 
and examined. Every fragment of the vestments had 
disappeared or been reduced to dust, except the gold 
and silver lace, yet not an ant was to be found any- 
where in the church, nor any vestige of their presence. 
Some days afterwards it was discovered that they had 
eaten a passage through a beam six inches thick. 

METALS. 

Up to the present time the mineral wealth of the 
Philippines remains in large measure undeveloped, no 
systematic workings or explorations having been 
made. From time to time spasmodic activity has been 
shown, but nearly every attempt has ended in failure, 
due principally to lack of capital, and, secondarily, to 
insufficient means of transportation and difficulty in 
procuring labor. Of late years more energy in this 
direction has been shown, the work of exploration 
having been assumed by a British corporation known 
as " The Philippines Mineral Syndicate, Limited," 
which has gone systematically to work and gained 



368 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

some new information concerning the mineral re- 
sources of the islands. Of the great number of islands, 
only about a score are known to contain deposits of 
valuable minerals, these including most of the large 
islands and a number of the smaller ones. 

As regards gold, greatly varied opinions have been 
expressed by different authorities, some holding that 
the Philippines are rich in this precious metal and 
only await active mining on scientific principles to 
yield it in large quantities, others doubting the rich- 
ness of the deposits and believing that the placer-work- 
ings were never of much value and have been largely 
exhausted. The metal was known to exist long before 
the Spanish period, and was mined by the natives in 
the primitive and irregular method which they still 
pursue, a rude and wasteful fashion in which they 
are apt to lose more than they gather. They have 
no means of blasting, lacking powder and dynamite, 
and are ignorant of the process of amalgamation, 
while the value of pyritic ores is unknown to them. 

In consequence, only rich deposits are worked, the 
gold of the alluvial beds being obtained by the use of 
wash-boards and flat wooden bowls, in which all the 
f^oat-gold is lost. The natives work some of the 
richer quartz veins, the gold-bearing rock being 
crushed with hammers or ground under heavy stone 
rollers turned by buffaloes, and then washed to obtain 
the gold. Their ignorance of amalgamation neces- 
sarily causes much of it to be lost. The idea of pump- 
ing out the shafts has not developed, the water being 
bailed out with small water-buckets, which Hnes of 
workmen pass from hand to hand. Even in this primi- 
tive and wasteful way the natives obtain enough gold 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 369 

to pay them for their labor. Nearly all the mountain 
people of Luzon traffic in gold, whidi is probably ob- 
tained from quartz veins in the mountain region. The 
alluvial deposits in this island have been prospected 
by the syndicate above named, and have yielded indi- 
cations of being rich and extensive. 

Gold Is not confined to Luzon. It has been found 
in Mindanao, Mindoro, Panay, Cebu, and the smaller 
islands of Samar, Catanduanes, Sibuyan, Bohol, and 
Panaon. Old placer workings exist in Cebu and 
Mindanao, and rich quartz veins are known to occur 
in the latter island. Panaon possesses at least one 
such vein. As for Mindoro, its name is said to come 
from mina de ora (gold mine), and the natives speak 
freely of places in the interior which are rich in gold. 
In the interior of Mindanao gold-dust is the instru- 
ment of exchange, it being carried about in bags for 
use in the ordinary purposes of life. The Misamis 
gold placers in this island are the richest in the archi- 
pelago, their yield under the native processes being 
about 150 ounces per month. Under the new political 
relations of the Philippines their resources in this 
direction are likely to be systematically exploited. 
The placer beds on the Pacific slopes of Luzon are in 
many cases near the sea, offering facilities for trans- 
portation. The introduction of modern methods and 
machinery might develop an important output of the 
precious metal in this region and in Mindanao. 

Silver occurs on several of the islands, including 
Cebu, Mindoro, and Marinduque, and platinum on 
Mindanao, while mercury is thought to exist on Panay 
and Leyte. Copper occurs somewhat widely, it having 
been found in Luzon, Masbate, Panay, and Mindanao, 

24 



370 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

though it has not yet been successfully mined by 
Europeans. The copper ores of the district of Le- 
panto, Luzon, have been rudely mined by the Igorrote 
tribe from remote times, they manufacturing their 
domestic utensils from the copper thus procured. Re- 
ports of the richness of the ores have led to several 
attempts at mining on the part of the Spaniards, but 
these were individual efforts, much money being spent 
without providing the necessary machinery or opening 
roads for the conveyance of the ore. Discouragement 
has arisen from the rugged nature of the rocks, the 
density of the forest jungle, and the indolence of the 
natives; but the principal difficulty in the way has 
been the lack of capital and of mining experience. A 
company was formed in 1862 for the working of 
several mines in Lepanto, the ore of the Mancayan 
mine yielding over sixteen per cent, of copper, twenty- 
four of sulphur, five of antimony, and five of arsenic. 
Copper mines have also been worked at Assit, in Mas- 
bate. More energy and better appliances are needed 
to develop the real richness of the islands in this metal. 
Lead occurs in Luzon, Marinduque, and Cebu, 
veins of galena having been found in Luzon and Cebu 
in which the lead is associated with a good percentage 
of gold and silver. There have been mining opera- 
tions near the city of Cebu. Iron exists in Luzon, 
Panay, and Cebu, ore of excellent quality, yielding up 
to eighty-five per cent, of pure metal, having been 
found in Luzon. But the backward condition of the 
roads has kept the charges for transportation so high 
that it has hitherto proved cheaper to import than to 
mine iron. Many iron-works have been started and 
abandoned, and cheap carriage must precede any 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 371 

attempt to work these ores with profit. There was 
actually more activity in iron mining a century ago 
than there is at present. 

MINERALS. 

From time to time the discovery of important coal 
deposits in the Philippines has been reported, its oc- 
currence being recorded in the islands of Luzon, Min- 
doro, Negros, Masbate, Samar, Panay, Leyte, Cebu, 
Mindanao, and several of the smaller islands. None 
of these beds, however, contain true coal, but excel- 
lent lignite, highly carbonized, and in very extensive 
deposits, has been found in Luzon, Cebu, Mindoro, 
and Masbate. Experiments with this have shown it 
to answer very satisfactorily the needs of steamers; 
but it is impossible to make use of it under present 
circumstances, the veins being situated in localities 
which are destitute of means of transportation. The 
highway and the railroad are sadly needed in the 
Philippines, even if for the exploitation of these rich 
deposits alone. Systematic exploration is similarly 
needed, and might very probably lead to the discovery 
of veins of true coal. In its absence, the lignite of the 
Philippines cannot fail to be of great value to future 
commerce in those waters. There are two principal 
fields of this mineral, one beginning in Caranson, in 
the south of Luzon, and apparently extending under 
sea to Samar, and the other in western Cebu and east- 
ern Negros. In the first of these a bed from ten to 
twenty feet thick, yielding good steamboat fuel, crops 
out at Gatho, and the second shows a number of beds 
varying in quality and thickness. 

As regards the need of exploration, the story is 



372 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

told of a vessel which was wrecked on the coast of 
Mindoro, the captain and crew being forced to cross 
the island to a port on the east coast. In their journey 
through the mountains they came across a very rich 
and extensive outcrop of coal, forming, they said, 
great ledges, from which thousands of tons had broken 
off and fallen to the foot of the cliffs. This was re- 
ported to the Spanish authorities, and the locality was 
duly made government property, though nothing 
further was done. 

Of other minerals, the most abundant is sulphur, 
which is found in Luzon and Biliran, occurring in 
unlimited quantities in and about the volcanoes, ex- 
tinct and active, sometimes pure, sometimes mixed 
with other substances. The crater of the Taal volcano 
is rich in sulphur, which has been profitably worked. 
Petroleum has been found in Cebu and Panay, and 
Mindoro possesses mines of a natural paint, probably 
composed of red lead. Gypsum occurs on Mindoro 
and Panay, and excellent marbles exist in large beds 
on Luzon and Romblon. Some of those of the prov- 
ince of Butaan, of finely variegated color, have been 
used in the ornamentation of churches, but beyond this 
no use has been found for them. Kaolin occurs in 
Luzon. In addition to the mineral deposits are numer- 
ous springs of mineral waters, sulphurous and ferru- 
ginous; and hot springs, of valuable medicinal prop- 
erties, occur in several localities. Great virtue is 
attributed to the waters of Pagsanghan by the people 
of Manila, and immense throngs gather in the Laguna 
to drink the curative waters, and join the processions 
in honor of the virgin patroness of that locality. 



IV. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

During the Spanish administration, the PhiHppines, 
like the other colonies of Spain, were under the con- 
trol of a governor-general or captain-general, account- 
able to the authorities at home, but supreme in 
authority over the islands. He was assisted in his 
duties by several consulting bodies, including a 
"junta of authorities," founded in 1850, and com- 
posed of the archbishop, general-in-chief, admiral, 
president of the supreme court, etc.; a junta of agri- 
culture, industry, and commerce, founded in 1866; 
and a council of administration. His titles covered a 
page, and embraced all the powers of government 
except that of authority over the fleet, and partly that 
over the church. There was a lieutenant-governor, 
who took his place in case of his death. As his term 
of office was brief, only three years, he had to press 
the people hard to obtain the fortune which he went 
to Manila to seek, — and usually found. 

The islands were divided into provinces, each under 
a military governor or a civilian alcalde, one of whose 
principal duties was the collection of taxes. The 
provinces were divided into pueblos (towns or vil- 
lages), each under the control of a gobernadorcillo 
(" little governor"), who was chosen from the natives 
or the mestizos, and was an important local personage, 
as the representative of the provincial governor. This 

373 



374 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

official settled all minor questions arising in his juris- 
diction; but his principal duty was to see that the 
taxes were duly collected and paid over, and he was 
obliged to make good any deficiency in them. He 
was required to aid in the arrest of criminals, to assist 
the friar in church afifairs, to attend upon visiting offi- 
cials, and often to entertain them at his own expense, 
and at times to travel to the provincial capital on offi- 
cial business, paying his own expenses. In compensa- 
tion for these various duties he received the diminutive 
salary of $200 a year, was allowed to carry a cane, and 
received the title of capitan. He could recuperate him- 
self only by " squeezing" his fellow-citizens. 

Wealthy men were chosen for this service, if there 
were any such, and often kept in office for years 
against their wills. Yet the position was sometimes 
earnestly sought, the Philippine native dearly enjoy- 
ing a little show of authority, and often being willing 
to pay for the privilege. 

As for his responsibility for the taxes, he had sub- 
ordinates in the same position. The towns were di- 
vided into groups of from forty to sixty families, Ba~ 
rangays, each under a cahcza, or native official, whose 
duty it was to collect the taxes or to pay out of his 
own pocket all he could not get from the people. This 
very undesirable position was forced upon the well- 
to-do inhabitants of the town, who, though nominally 
elected every two years, were really kept in office 
while their property held out, financial ruin being a 
not uncommon end of their official duties. There were 
other minor officials, while gohernadorcillos who had 
served a term and cahezas of ten years' standing 
formed the '' headmen" of the town, who met periodi- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 375 

cally at the tribunal, or town hall, for the discussion of 
public affairs. 

In the words of Worcester, the headmen " assemble 
every Sunday morning, and, headed by the gobcrna- 
dorcillo, and frequently also by a band playing very 
lively airs, they march to the convcnto and escort the 
friar to church, where they all attend mass. Their 
state dress is quite picturesque. Their white shirts 
dangle outside of their pantaloons after the Philippine 
fashion, and over them they wear tight-fitting jackets 
without tails, which reach barely to their waists. 
When the jacket is buttoned, it causes the shirt to 
stand out in a frill, producing a most grotesque effect." 

The above description of the governmental organi- 
zation does not apply to all the inhabitants, there being 
wandering mountain and forest tribes who have been 
brought only nominally under control of the estab- 
lished government; while many of the Moros, or Mo- 
hammedans, of the south have never been subjected 
to Spanish authority. The Sultan of Sulu is the ruler 
of all the Moros, though there are two subordinate 
Sultans in Mindanao who are only nominally subject 
to him. His court embraces a regent, who replaces 
him during his absence, a minister of war, and a 
minister of justice; while there are many datos or 
chiefs. The local village ruler bears the title of man- 
darin. 

There was no feature of Spanish rule more pro- 
vokingly unjust than the administration of justice. 
There were two supreme courts, one at Manila and 
one at Cebu, and forty-one superior courts, with the 
requisite number of local courts. The dilatoriness 
of these courts became proverbial, even in the slow- 



376 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

moving East. The litigant was very likely to be 
fleeced out of a sum far surpassing the value of the 
object in dispute before he could escape from the 
hands of the judges and lawyers, all of whom were 
sharp on the scent for fees. "Availing one's self of 
the dilatoriness of the Spanish law," says a recent 
traveller, " it is possible for a man to occupy a house, 
pay no rent, and refuse to quit on legal grounds during 
a couple of years or more. A person who has not a cent 
to lose can persecute another by means of a trumped- 
up accusation, until he is ruined by an ' information de 
pohreza,^ — a declaration of poverty, — which enables the 
prosecutor to keep the case going as long as he 
chooses, without needing money for fees." 

RELIGION, 

Behind, or rather side by side with, the govern- 
mental institutions of the Philippines stood the reli- 
gious, exercising a co-ordinate authority, and, as they 
came into more intimate relations with the people, 
acting really as the ''power behind the throne." The 
early treatment of the natives of the Philippines by 
the Spaniards was far different from their treatment 
of the American Indians. In these islands the people 
were not enslaved, and the soldier and adventurer were 
subordinated by the priest, the small body of troops 
being accompanied by zealous missionaries, whose 
purpose was rather to Christianize than to pillage and 
oppress the natives. The result was that the friars 
gained in time a paramount influence over the people, 
all of whom became Christians, with the exception of 
the wild and wandering tribes, who continue pagans, 
and the Moros of Mindanao and the Sulu Islands, who 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 377 

are zealous Mohammedans, — though their Moham- 
medanism is not strictly orthodox. Their panditas, or 
priests, are subject to chcrifs, hereditary dignitaries 
who exercise both temporal and spiritual power. 

The ecclesiastic administration of the islands con- 
sists of an archbishop at Manila and bishops in 
several other localities, while the several religious 
orders — the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians, 
and Jesuits — have convents at Manila and other 
places. The Jesuits, expelled from the islands in 1768, 
as a result of the religious dissensions, were restored 
in 1852, and have now much influence in Manila, 
though their religious labors are confined to the Mo- 
hammedan islands, where they are in constant peril 
of their lives from the fierce and Christian-hating 
Moros. The Jesuits are the only learned ecclesiastics 
in the Philippines, being usually well educated and of 
good ability, while their special field of missionary 
labor is notable for an absence of the abuses so com- 
mon elsewhere. 

Unfortunately, the friars of the religious orders, as 
a rule, have been men of very different stamp from the 
Jesuit priests. The Austin, Dominican, Franciscan, 
and Recoleto friars are largely recruited from the 
lowest classes of Spain, and have no other training 
than that of the seminary, their lack of secular educa- 
tion leaving them a very ignorant class. These are 
the people with whom the Philippine natives have 
come most immediately into contact, who alone have 
been familiar with their languages, and have acted as 
the chief medium of communication between the peo- 
ple and the authorities. It has not suited their pur- 
poses to have the people speak Spanish, and they have 



378 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

not hesitated to forbid its teaching in the schools. 
The result has been that the education of most of the 
natives was confined to the study of the catechism and 
of a few prayers in their own language. No transla- 
tion of the Bible has been permitted in the islands. 

Many abuses have arisen from this state of affairs. 
While many of the friars have been moral and well- 
meaning men, their ranks have included a number of 
black sheep, there being scarcely any unpriestly fault 
of which some of them have not been accused, in- 
cluding drunkenness, luxurious living, unchastity, etc. 
Greed for money has been one of their besetting sins. 
Their charge for performing the marriage ceremony, 
for instance, was often so high that many of the people 
were forced to dispense with this ceremony. In Mas- 
bate, as Worcester was told, the priests exacted fifty 
dollars for burying an uncofifined body and seventy- 
five if a cofifin was used, besides charging a round sum 
for the coffin itself. 

The religious corporations possess large revenues, 
owning very valuable lands in Luzon, which they rent 
to the natives on severe conditions. The leases are 
so cunningly worded that the tenants are at the mercy 
of their landlords, by whom they are often very un- 
justly treated. '' The Church," says Foreman, himself 
a Catholic, ''as a body-politic, dispenses no charity, 
but receives all. It is always begging; always above 
civil laws and taxes; claims immunity; proclaims 
poverty, and inculcates in others charity to itself." 

'' The clergy," he continues, '' derive a very large 
portion of their incomes from commissions on the sale 
of cedulas, sales of Papal bulls, masses, pictures, books, 
chaplets, and indulgences; marriage, burial, and bap- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 379 

tismal fees, benedictions, donations touted out after 
the crops are raised, legacies to be paid for in masses, 
remains of wax candles left in the^church by the faith- 
ful, fees for getting souls out of purgatory, etc. The 
surplus revenues over and above parochial require- 
ments are supposed to augment the common Church 
funds in Manila. The corporations are consequently 
immensely wealthy, and their power and influence are 
in consonance with that wealth." 

If the instances of the iniquities of the friars and 
their oppressive treatment of the people that are on 
record could be collated, they would make a consider- 
able volume filled with stories of shameful delinquen- 
cies. Many men, indeed, have been permitted to hold 
parishes in the Philippines who would not have been 
tolerated in Spain, and were utterly unfitted by educa- 
tion and character for the holding of a religious posi- 
tion. Their treatment of the natives has been such as 
to arouse a bitter hatred against them, evidences of 
which were shown in the harsh treatment of the friars 
by the natives during the recent insurrection. Of 
course, the friars, as a whole, are not chargeable with 
these faults, but their reputation suffers from the de- 
linquency of many of their members. 

The Christianity of the natives is a very superficial 
one. Of their religious duties, payment of the cash 
demands of the friars is one of the most rigidly re- 
quired. As regards actual religion, very little will 
serve, some "degree of outward observance being the 
main requirement. It is in considerable measure by 
religious processions that the Church holds its ascend- 
ency over the Filipinos, these being the pride and 
delight of the native mind. On the occasion of the 



38o OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

great Church festivals they gather in multitudes, both 
as actors and spectators. The most brilliant of these 
are those which ta^e place after sunset, when hosts 
of persons carry lighted wax candles; the procession 
being sometimes a mile or more long, while splendidly 
dressed and richly jewelled images of the objects of 
veneration are carried in the line. There are numer- 
ous bands of music, groups of little girls dressed in 
white, and everything to add to the attraction of the 
procession, the different religious orders seeking to 
surpass each other in display. The images, of life 
size, and dressed in gorgeously ornamented garments, 
are borne on platforms carried on the shoulders of 
their votaries and illuminated by long rows of wax 
lights on each side of the way. 

Everybody takes part in these ceremonials; uni- 
versal bustle pervades the locality, invitations to feasts 
are given or accepted, skilled hands busy themselves 
in making sweetmeats or cooking delicacies, the 
houses are adorned with flowers and fruits, handsome 
arches, with variegated lanterns, are erected in the 
streets, all wear their finest dresses, music is heard 
everywhere, fireworks are shown, balloons are sent up, 
and all forms of popular amusement are in full play. 

It has been said that it is the policy of the friars to 
conduct the natives to heaven by a pathway of fiowers; 
but there are thorns among the roses and difficulties 
on the path, and, despite the efforts to captivate the 
simple-minded people by outward show, the friars 
have succeeded in laying up a large debt of vengeance 
against themselves, if we may judge from recent de- 
velopments. 

The evils which have so long existed in the ecclesi- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 381 

astical administration of the Philippines can scarcely 
continue under the new dispensation. Hitherto no 
Protestant church or service has been permitted, but 
freedom of religious belief is one of the assured results 
of their passing under the influence of the United 
States. With vigorous Protestant competition in reli- 
gious teaching, education deserving of the name, and 
strict separation of Church and State, a very different 
state of affairs promises to arise, embracing education 
of higher grade and religion of a more moral tone than 
those that have hitherto prevailed. 

PUBLIC WORKS. 

The Philippine Islands are notable for having almost 
no public works of any description. Roads are prac- 
tically unknown. In the Spanish endeavor to subdue 
the inhabitants, the primary value of highways seems 
to have been ignored still more here than in Cuba; 
and those who would make their way inland have 
usually only the native buffalo tracks to follow or must 
struggle with primitive nature. To find a road pass- 
ing inland on which a carriage can travel is a rare 
discovery. The few roads on which some care has 
been bestowed average about twenty-five feet in width, 
some of them being ditched and graded, but very 
little stone being used upon them. Even the roads 
leading from Manila are unpaved highways, which 
become impassable to vehicles in the rainy season. 
In fact, the streets of IManila itself are little better, 
being wretchedly paved, if paved at all, and becoming 
mud sloughs in the rains. In the wet season trans- 
portation depends largely on buffaloes drawing rude 
sledges, a sort of sleighing upon mud. 



382 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

Spain's hold on the islands has been gained without 
the use of roads, and the Spaniard confines himself 
mainly to the coast regions. Other towns besides 
Manila have what are called by courtesy carriage 
roads; but these are not only impassable in the wet 
season, but are apt to be so in the dry, from an un- 
mended washout or a ruined bridge. The roads in 
general are mere paths on which even horseback travel 
is next to impossible during the rains, they being a 
succession of pools and sloughs; while on many of 
them a horse is at any time useless, unbridged streams 
being encountered too deep for fording and at times 
infested by man-eating crocodiles. The water-bufifalo 
can go where a horse cannot; but the pecuHarities of 
this brute, and in particular its love of mud, render it 
an undesirable riding animal. In short, in Philippine 
travel, one finds it best to go by water where rivers are 
convenient; by carriage or on horseback where there 
is an apology for a road; elsewhere on buf¥alo-back 
or on foot. When a traveller has baggage, he is often 
obliged to depend on coolies for its transportation. 

Railroad enterprise in the Philippines has hitherto 
been confined to the road extending from Manila to 
Dagupan, 123 miles distant. This is a narrow-gauge 
road, — the width of the road-bed being three feet six 
inches, and the engines and cars proportionately small. 
The road runs northward, its terminus, Dagupan, be- 
ing on the Gulf of Langayen. It traverses a fertile 
region, — the first third of the route being a rice-grow- 
ing district, the second a sugar-cane country, while the 
final third is more tropical in character, yielding some 
coffee and minor products, while the cocoa-nut palm 
is very abundant. 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 383 

It is not surprising that with this comparatively 
short railway and with the almost utter lack of prac- 
ticable roads, the country has not been developed. 
Overland transportation is almost non-existent, and 
there is abundant opportunity for the labors of the 
American engineer if it is proposed to open up the 
mineral resources of the country or advance its com- 
mercial interests. As it stands at present, it presents 
almost a virgin field to the engineer. 

In the direction of water traffic some more enter- 
prise has been shown, and fairly regular steamship 
communication exists between the more important 
islands, lines of mail and merchant steamers run- 
ning with a moderate degree of frequency. Freight 
charges, however, are very high. To reach islands or 
ports at which vessels do not call, only the native sail- 
boat is available. This answers the purpose fairly well 
in good weather, but is not a comfortable or safe mode 
of travel in case of storm or a high sea. 

The telegraph has attained some development, there 
being submarine communication with Hong-Kong. 
The cable lands at Cape BoHnao, and is thence carried 
overland to Manila. The principal towns in Luzon 
have telegraphic connection with the capital, and there 
is a cable line, laid by a British company, extending 
from Manila to Capiz, in Panay, whence a land line 
runs to Iloilo. It is thence extended to Bakalot, in 
Negros, round the coast to Escalante, and by sea to 
Cebu Island, ending at the city of Cebu. The total 
length of cable and telegraph lines is from 1500 to 
2000 miles. 



384 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

POPULATION. 

The population of the Phihppines is not known, 
nothing more than an estimate being practicable. It 
is usually roughly estimated at 8,000,000, of whom 
about 5,000,000 are accredited to Luzon, much the 
most populous island. The population is a composite 
one, two-thirds of the inhabitants being of Malayan 
origin, or Indian, as they are often called. In addition 
there is a large and important half-breed population, 
born of native mothers and European or Chinese 
fathers. These mestizos^ as they are designated, form 
a potent part of the population. They are especially 
numerous in Manila, whose estimated 300,000 inhabi- 
tants includes 50,000 Chinese and 4000 Spanish half- 
breeds. Its remaining population is estimated to em- 
brace 200,000 natives, 40,000 Chinese, 5000 Spanish 
and Creoles of Spanish descent, and about 300 whites 
of other than Spanish origin. The whole European 
population of the Philippines is estimated at 25,000, 
principally Spanish, the remainder being mainly Eng- 
lish and German merchants. 

The large number of Chinese mestizos is due to the 
habits of Chinese immigrants. Despite the dislike of 
the natives for the Chinese and the several massacres 
which they have experienced at the hands of the 
Spaniards, they have continued to make their way into 
the islands, in which their industrious, frugal, and per- 
severing habits, as compared with the indolence of the 
natives, have given them almost a monopoly of the 
retail trade. In Manila they are everywhere found, 
and occupy a variety of industrial positions, the mer- 
chants among them being supplemented by barbers, 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 385 

tanners, dyers, carpenters, shoemakers, tinsmiths, and 
other artisans. Their peaceful demeanor and obedi- 
ence to the laws give their enemies no opportunity to 
interfere with them, while they rarely hesitate to pro- 
fess Christianity if they find it will be of any aid in 
business. Thus they have long been growing steadily 
in numbers, wealth, and importance. 

Yet the Chinese are birds of passage, returning 
home to be succeeded by others. For some reason no 
Chinese women accompany them, the women of China 
showing a remarkable unwillingness to emigrate. 
Tbus among 525 Chinamen in the fortress of Manila 
in 1855 there were only two women, and the 5055 
Chinamen in Binondo included only eight females, all 
children. It is to this state of afifairs that the large 
mestizo population is due. The disHke of the natives 
for the Chinese does not seem to be shared by their 
women, many of them becoming wives or handmaids 
of these foreigners. Marriage requires a preliminary 
subjection to the Church of Rome, and as most of 
the Chinese decline to give up their native faith, their 
relations with the native women are usually outside 
the pale of the Church. The Chinese mestizos in the 
archipelago number more than 200,000, being numer- 
ous enough to form separate and very influential com- 
munities. 

The Chinese were at first restricted by law to agri- 
cultural labor. But the dislike felt for them by the 
rural population, and their invincible tendency to 
abandon any career for another which seems more 
profitable, led them to break through this restriction, 
and they in time gained too assured a position in the 
towns to be disturbed. Though ready to accept 

25 



386 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

almost any avocation, the business of retail shopkeep- 
ing is their favorite pursuit. But within late years 
many of them have become wholesale dealers and 
merchants, exporting and importing largely on their 
own account, and having subordinate agents widely 
spread through the islands. The Chinaman is a born 
dealer, cunning, patient, and economical, and many 
of the Philippine Chinese have grown wealthy through 
their business talent and activity. 

The mestizos seem to inherit the paternal type, their 
children for generations displaying the Chinese char- 
acter. None of the natives are so industrious, eco- 
nomical, and, generally, so prosperous. They inherit 
the speculative spirit of their fathers or ancestors, have 
gained a large part of the retail trade, and many of 
them have acquired riches and landed property. They 
form the middle class of the people, being better edu- 
cated and more moral and intellectual than the natives, 
handsomer and better dressed. Some of their women 
are beautiful. They preserve most of the habits of 
the natives, but surpass them in enterprise, prudence, 
perseverance, and devotion to trade and commerce. 
In short, they are far the most promising part of the 
native Philippine population. 

THE CIVILIZED NATIVES. 
The Filipinos, as they are designated by the Span- 
iards, who constitute the great bulk of the popula- 
tion, are said to comprise more than eighty distinct 
tribes, each with its special habits. These are scat- 
tered widely through the multitude of islands, and of 
many of them very little is known. The aborigines 
are believed to be the dwarfish Negritos, of whom few 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 387 

now remain, they having been driven into the wilds 
and largely annihilated by the invading Malays, who 
now compose the great bulk of the population. The 
latter, while forming numerous tribes, may be divided 
into two principal races, — the Tagals, occupying the 
north, and the Visayas, of the south. Of these, all 
those who inhabit the towns and villages profess Chris- 
tianity, and have long been greatly under the influ- 
ence of the clergy, who claim 6,000,000 nominal Chris- 
tians. 

Outside the towns, however, religious ordinances 
receive little attention, and the mountainous parts of 
the islands are inhabited by wild tribes of pagans. 
The Tagals form the principal inhabitants of Luzon, 
preferring its lowland regions, and generally building 
their pile-supported dwellings near water. They con- 
stitute the bulk of the population in the towns of this 
island, and are also found in Mindoro, Marinduque, 
and several of the smaller southern islands. 

Physically the Tagal is well developed. He pos- 
sesses a round head, high cheek-bones, flattish nose, 
low brow, thickish lips, large dark eyes, straight black 
hair, and olive complexion. His power of smell is re- 
markably acute. The natives of this race are devoted 
to agriculture, rice being their chief crop and means of 
living; though they are much given to fishing, and 
keep swine and cattle and great numbers of ducks and 
fowls. Cock-fighting is their leading passion; they 
are fond of theatrical entertainments, and have a 
strong taste and talent for music, being very successful 
in playing upon European instruments. 

Though Roman Catholic in faith, their old super- 
stitions still influence them. They had an alphabet of 



388 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

their own before the Spanish conquest, and still pos- 
sess some of their ancient songs and melodies. Their 
language, the Tagalog, has made its way largely 
through the islands since the Spanish conquest. 

The Visayas inhabit all the islands south of Luzon 
and north of Mindanao, including part of the latter 
island and of Palawan. The Calamianes, inhabiting 
the islands of that name, and the Caragus, a coast 
tribe of eastern Mindanao, are usually classed with 
them. The Visayas were more civilized than the Ta- 
gals at the time of settlement by the Spanish, and lent 
their aid to the latter in the conquest of the Tagals. 
They resemble physically the Tagals and the other 
Malayan races of Luzon, the distinction being in their 
language. This seems a dialect of the Tagalog, but 
is rather harsher, and is less copious, refined, and sub- 
ject to grammatical rules, while it has more Malay 
words than the Luzon dialects. The languages are 
sufficiently similar to enable members of the two races 
to converse with some difficulty. The Visayans fur- 
nish a hardy, seafaring race, though with the tendency 
to indolence shown by the Filipinos in general. 

Luzon possesses in its northwest section another 
civilized tribe, the Ilocanes, resembling the Tagals in 
appearance and in orderly habits, but dififering in dia- 
lect. In truth, this is the main difference between the 
Malay peoples spread so widely through Malacca, Su- 
matra, and the far-extended islands of the Pacific, 
from Hawaii to Madagascar; though many of the 
island Malays have varied physically through inter- 
marriage with aboriginal populations. 

The natives so far mentioned, originally pagan, now 
Christian, are known by the Spaniards under the gen- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 389 

eral title of Indios, or Indians, in distinction to the 
Moros, or Mohammedan natives of the most southern 
islands, an intractable race who have resisted all the 
efiforts of the missionaries at conversion, and who con- 
form more to the general idea of Malays in their fierce, 
warlike disposition, their seafaring habits, and their 
tendency to piracy. 

The Moros are of late date in the Philippines, which 
they entered about the same time as the Spaniards, 
making their way thither from Borneo, and bringing 
with them the Moslem faith and that unyielding ad- 
herence to the doctrines of Islamism which seems 
everywhere characteristic of Mohammedans. Their 
route was by way of the Sulu Islands, adjacent to 
Borneo and only recently attached to the Philippine 
archipelago. 

Landing first in Basilan, they quickly occupied 
Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, and the smaller islands of the group, 
and in time made their way by force of arms into Min- 
danao, spread throughout its coast region, and oc- 
cupied Balabac and the south of Palawan. In the 
latter island they first came into collision with the 
Spaniards, who checked their advance, though they 
have never succeeded in expelling them from the 
island. 

The Moros are born pirates. The sea, rather than 
the land, is their native habitation. They haunt the 
coasts and dwell as nearly as possible in their native 
element by building theii* villages over the water, each 
house erected on piles sunk in the shoal sea. In them 
we seem to possess a surviving remnant of the Malay 
sea-rovers who in times past manned their war-praus 
and went forth to conquer the multitudinous islands 



390 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

of the South Sea. In the Sulus they retain this habit. 
Moved by a fanatical hatred of the Christians, and par- 
ticularly of the Spaniards, whom they early learned 
to hate, they have during several centuries made life 
anything but safe and agreeable on the northern 
islands by their incessant raids. 

These piratical expeditions became annual events^. 
At the setting in of the southwest monsoon the Moros 
would launch their boats, seek the central and north- 
ern islands, harry the Spanish and native coast towns, 
and hasten back before the changing of the winds. 
In these raids they were usually successful and always 
cruel. Captives were taken by thousands, the men 
being butchered after having been forced to harvest 
their own crops for the benefit of the captors, the 
women and children carried away, the former for the 
seraglio, the latter to be brought up as slaves. 

This state of aflfairs continued for over two cen- 
turies, the Moros not alone attacking the natives, but 
killing many Spaniards and holding others for ransom. 
They particularly hated the priests and friars, whom 
they took every opportunity to capture. All this was 
not viewed with equanimity by the Spaniards. Many 
costly expeditions were sent against the Moros, with 
temporary but no permanent success. At times land- 
ings were made and forts built on Sulu itself, the very 
centre of the Moro power. But they did not remain, 
the garrisons being in every case slain or driven out 
by the indomitable Moslemsj 

Such was the state of affairs until within the past 
quarter-century, in which the development of light- 
draught steam gunboats and rapid-fire guns gave the 
Spaniards at length the advantage over their foes, who 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 391 

continued to use their effective but antiquated steel 
weapons, the kris, barong, and campilan, various forms 
of sword and dagger. Guns they rarely obtained, and 
used poorly when they did. 

Eventually an efficient patrol of gunboats was es- 
tablished, the sea-built villages were shelled and the 
people driven inland, and no prau was permitted to 
put to sea without a Spanish permit and a show of 
the Spanish flag. If encountered without these, it 
was at once sunk. The town of Sulu was destroyed 
in 1876 and a Spanish military post established in its 
place. Other points were taken and fortified, the raids 
of the Moros were effectually checked, and a sort of 
armed truce followed, broken at intervals by both 
sides. Such was the ultimate state of affairs, the 
Moros practically preserving their independence, but 
forced to desist from their warlike habits. 

These people are highly skilful as boatmen and 
sailors. Their praus, neatly carved from logs, are of 
knife-like sharpness in bow and keel, and can be driven 
through the water with great swiftness. Bamboo out- 
riggers prevent them from sinking even when filled 
with water. The men are energetic and industrious, 
— in such work as they are willing to perform, — being 
free from the listless indolence of the northern natives. 
They are of medium height and often of superb physi- 
cal development, always going armed unless prevented 
from doing so. Their women are exceedingly fond of 
bright colors, green and scarlet in particular; while 
their children, though possessing clothes, make little 
use of them, living more in the water than on land. 

What difficulties the Americans are likely to have 
with these people, in the event of occupation of the 



392 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

islands, remains to be seen. Hatred of Christians is 
their strongest passion, and they beHeve that whoever 
takes the hfe of a Christian increases his chance of 
future happiness. If slain while slaughtering the foes 
of his faith he goes straight to the seventh heaven of 
bliss. This unpleasant belief at times leads to a 
bloody result. Some Moro, weary of life, and hopeful 
of speedy glory in the next world, prepares himself 
carefully and takes a solemn oath to die killing Chris- 
tians. Then, hiding about him one of the deadl}^ 
Moro weapons, he seeks the nearest town. If ad- 
mitted, he draws the concealed weapon and runs 
amuck through the street, killing every living being 
in his path until he is himself slain. At times one of 
these mad fanatics takes an incredible number of lives 
before he is dispatched. The news of his death is joy- 
fully received by his relatives. 

So fierce and intractable a people as this is not 
likely to prove easy to deal with. Yet other methods 
than those of the Spaniards may have better effects. 
Hostility, treachery, slaughter, are not the best agents 
with which to win peace and confidence. " If you 
meet armed Moros outside of the town order them to 
lay down their weapons and retire; if they do not in- 
stantly obey, shoot them." Such was the advice of 
General Arolas to Worcester, the American naturalist. 
Worcester, on the contrary, treated them with kind- 
ness and confidence, and obtained their respect and 
trust in return. Probably a general adoption of this 
treatment would convert the Moros from enemies- to 
friends. What is specially needed is to let their reli- 
gion alone. To interfere with that in any way would 
be a sure means of provoking hostility. 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 393 

THE WILD TRIBES. 

The uncivilized inhabitants of the PhiHppine Islands 
belong to two widely distinct races, the Negrito abo- 
rigines and the Malay invading race. The Negritos 
are savages of the lowest grade, once wide-spread 
throughout the islands, but gradually driven back 
and exterminated by the invaders till few of them 
remain, and these confined to the most inaccessible 
regions of Luzon and some other islands. A con- 
siderable number' of them remain in Mindanao and 
some in Negros, which derives its name from them. 
The total number remaining is perhaps not over 
25,000. 

They are of dwarfish stature, the men averaging 
four feet eight inches high, and are thin and spindle- 
legged, with flattish nose, full lips, thick frizzled black 
hair, and very dark complexion. They wear little 
clothing, tattoo themselves, have no fixed abodes, and 
wander through the forests, living on game, honey, 
wild fruits, roots of the arum, and such other food as 
they can obtain. They sell wax to the Christians in 
exchange for tobacco and betel. Their weapons are 
the bow and arrow, the latter usually poisoned. One 
of their characteristics is an extraordinary prehensile 
power in the toes, very useful in climbing. They can 
descend head downward the rigging of a ship, hang- 
ing on by the toes, and can pick up minute objects 
with their feet. This lowest of the races seems to have 
been at one time very wide-spread, being found now 
in widely separated regions, while similar dwarf tribes 
are numerous in the forests of Africa. 

The Negritos are also known as Aetas (in Min- 



394 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

danao they are called Mamanuas), and have mingled 
to some extent with the Malays and Chinese, there 
being a number of half-breed tribes. Thus the Itanegs 
have a mixture of Chinese blood, the Ifugaos of Japa- 
nese, the resulting half-breeds being superior in char- 
acter to the Negritos. The former, according to the 
friars, only need conversion to make good Indios. 
The Tagbanuas of Palawan are thought to be a half- 
breed of Malay and Negrito, being dark-skinned and 
with curly hair. Though wild wanderers, with little 
pretence to clothing, they are much superior to the 
Negritos, — friendly in disposition, less suspicious than 
savage tribes generally, and possessing that talent for 
music which is a Malay characteristic. They even 
possess an alphabet, a simple syllabic one. 

Their huts are mere leaf shelters, in which it is im- 
possible to stand erect, and in which fire smudges are 
kept going to drive away insect pests. Their utensils 
are a few earthen pots, and much of their time is 
spent in the forest in search of honey and wax and 
other useful substances. Polygamy does not exist 
among them, but child marriage is very common, 
children being betrothed sometimes before birth, — 
the proviso being made that they should prove of the 
desired sex. Their legal system is a simple one. The 
person accused of a serious crime and his accuser are 
led to a deep pond, under whose water they dive 
simultaneously. The one who stays under the longest 
is believed to have told the truth. 

Such are some of the characteristics of one of the 
half-breed tribes with Negrito blood. In addition to 
the savages named are a large number of Malay tribes, 
which diflfer greatly in character and customs, — wan- 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 395 

derers in the forests and on the mountains, some of 
them fierce and suspicious in disposition, others kindly 
and trusting. Those who show dangerous hostiHty 
to the whites have doubtless good reason for their 
feeling, and different treatment might in many cases 
change their attitude, though some tribes in the high- 
lands of Luzon and Mindanao seem natively fierce and 
warlike. These warlike hill-tribes might perhaps be 
best disposed of by converting them into soldiers, as 
England has done with similar tribes in India. 

The wild tribes are numerous and possess a con- 
siderable variety of languages, the dialects of the sepa- 
rate tribes being usually unintelligible to each other, 
while sometimes a dialect seems confined to a single 
family group. The title of Igorrotes or Igolotes, once 
the name of a single tribe, was gradually extended to 
include the several head-hunting tribes of Luzon, and 
later to embrace nearly all the wild tribes of the island. 
There are said to be several tribes of head-hunters, 
comprising the Altasanes, the Apayaos, and the Gad- 
danes. It is stated that a Gaddanes youth cannot hope 
to win a bride unless he can show at least one human 
head in proof of his valor. 

Of the tribes of Mindanao, seventeen are included 
among the pagan hill tribes, and most of the smaller 
islands have interior wild tribes. As we have said, 
they are by no means all warlike. Worcester, who 
penetrated to the interior of a considerable number 
of the islands and came into contact with many of the 
tribes, had no trouble with any met by him, even those 
of reputed fierceness. For example, in penetrating 
Mindoro, he was warned against a tribe of head-hunt- 
ing cannibals. On meeting this tribe, the Mangyans, 



396 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

he found them the most harmless of people, simple, 
confiding, and helpful in every way possible to them. 
They lived the most primitive life, wandering through 
the forests during the dry season and sleeping 
wherever night overtook them, under a hasty shelter 
of palm leaves, and in the wet season building a plat- 
form on poles, roofed with leaves of the rattan or palm. 
The attire of the women was a curious mass of cord, 
made of strips of rattan, coiled from waist T:o hips and 
supporting a clout of bark. The men wore only the 
clout. 

In addition to the wild tribes, there are in the inte- 
rior of some of the islands lurking bands of tidisanes, 
or bandits, made up of escaped convicts' and other out- 
laws, who form perilous neighbors to the peacefully 
inclined. Cowardly in grain, their attacks are mainly 
on the defenceless, while in their difficult retreats they 
easily keep beyond the reach of the lax authorities. 

EDUCATION, 

The Spanish have established what bear the name 
of schools for the education of the Philippine natives, 
but the name rarely represents the thing, education 
there being but a travesty of what it is in enlightened 
lands. Some $40,000 were annually appropriated by 
the Spanish rulers for the support of the provincial 
schools, but it cannot safely be said that all this money 
reached the schools. The school-master has been none 
too well equipped for his work. Manila possessed a 
normal school or training seminary for teachers, but its 
tests were anything but rigid, and its graduates set out 
upon their work with very little education of their 
own. 



CIVIL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. 397 

The rate of pay was miserably small, and the draw- 
ing of salaries tied up with so much red tape that it 
cost a fair share of the monthly stipend to get the 
remainder. This was not all. The teachers were not 
at liberty to impart what little learning they possessed. 
The village friars played the role of school inspectors, 
and took good care that nothing should be taught of 
which they did not approve. In particular they laid 
an embargo on Spanish. It was long ago enacted that 
the natives should be taught the doctrines of Chris- 
tianity in the Spanish language, and many decrees 
have been passed for the enforcement of this law. 
Even as late as 1887 the governor-general pointedly 
notified the archbishop that this requirement was not 
observed. But nothing has been done in the matter. 
It did not suit the friars that the natives should speak 
Spanish, and they took excellent care that it should 
not be taught. Some of the better educated natives 
might obtain a smattering of this language, with some 
knowledge of writing, reading, and arithmetic; but 
education has usually been restricted to the teaching 
of some of the prayers of the Church and a smattering 
of the catechism. 

When one compares this with the great develop- 
ment of education in Hawaii, through the labors of the 
Protestant missionaries, it becomes evident that the 
development of the Philippine intellect has been 
shamefully neglected. The new owners or guardians 
of the island will have a largely unworked field, and 
an opportunity of greatly developing the intelligence 
of the natives, who are quick to learn and anxious for 
the opportunity. 

The only educational institutions on the islands of 



398 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

any practical value are fhose at Manila. Among these 
is the University of St. Thomas, a Dominican institu- 
tion, with over a thousand students, and professor- 
ships of theology, metaphysics, grammar, canon and 
civil law, but none of science, modern languages, or 
the other advanced branches insisted on in recent col- 
leges elsewhere. 

Another Dominican institution, the College of San 
Juan de Letran, has an excellent equipment and a fine 
museum of history and the arts. It teaches only na- 
tive youth. Medicine and pharmacy are taught in the 
College of San Jose. The Royal Polytechnic Society 
has for its object the promotion of the arts and 
sciences. There is a nautical school, an academy of 
painting, several colleges for women, etc. 

Much the best school in the archipelago is the Jesuit 
institution called the Ateneo Municipal, situated in 
Manila, and including many able scholars among its 
faculty. Its scope is one of considerable breadth, in- 
cluding courses of study in many branches, such as 
mathematics, commerce, modern and ancient lan- 
guages, history, science, philosophy, painting, and 
various others. Another important Jesuit institution 
is the observatory at Manila, which is very well 
equipped with apparatus, particularly that adapted to 
meteorological observation and for recording the 
movements of earthquakes. Skilled and able men are 
at the' head of this institution, whose observations are 
of great value to merchants in giving timely notice 
of the approach of typhoons. If necessary, warning 
of the course of a threatening storm is cabled to Hong- 
Kong. 



V, CENTRES OF POPULATION- 
MANILA. 

The central fact in a description of the Philippine 
Islands is the city of Manila, the capital of the archi- 
pelago, the centre of Spanish power for the past three 
centuries, and one of the great commercial cities of 
the eastern world. This metropolis, situated in north 
latitude 14° 36', east longitude 120° 57', is in effect 
two cities, — old Manila, the walled and fortified centre 
of governmental rule, on the left bank of the Pasig 
River, and Binondo, or New Manila, the business 
centre, in which the merchants reside and the ware- 
houses are built, on the right of the stream. 

The river itself, the dividing line between the old 
city and the new, forms one of the most active and 
interesting portions of the whole situation, with its 
hosts of busy craft of varied size and shape, including 
numbers of great, square-ended cargo-lighters, forced 
up the stream by pole-wielding Malays, their sturdy 
limbs and bodies well revealed by their very scant 
costume. Steamers, schooners, and other craft from 
the interior line the banks. Among fhem are large 
dug-out canoes, fashioned from tree-trunks, for light 
freight, and smaller ones with outriggers and shades 
for carrying passengers. In addition are the ferry- 
boats, which move up and down stream, the whole 
forming a very animated scene. These boats and the 

399 



400 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

up-river craft are manned by Tagals, the natives who 
form the great bulk of the city population. 

The Pasig, which forms the dividing line of the 
official and the commercial cities, and the link between 
the lake named Laguna de Bay and the bay of Manila, 
is fourteen miles long, averages about 350 feet in 
width, and varies from three to tWenty-five feet in 
depth. It is crossed by three bridges, one of them a 
suspension bridge. The Puente Grande, which unites 
Manila and Binondo, is a time-honored structure, 
originally built of wood upon masonry piers, and with 
seven arches of different sizes. Two of these were de- 
stroyed by the earthquake of 1824, but they have been 
restored. The bridge is 457 feet long and 24 wide, 
and affords fine views of the widely different cities on 
the opposite sides of the stream. 

Manila, the old city, or the citadel, as it is at times 
called, is a place straitened in dimensions, and sur- 
rounded by massive walls, forty feet thick, and about 
two and a quarter miles in circuit, possessing eight 
gates, each with its portcullis and a drawbridge cross- 
ing the moat without. The latter is supposed to be 
filled with water from the river, but the sluices have 
been out of order for years, and the moat is half full 
of filthy mud, which the authorities dread to disturb 
lest they should set afloat the seeds of pestilence. 
Until 1852 the drawbridge between the old city and 
the new was drawn up every night and the gate closed, 
as if feudal conditions still prevailed. 

The walls, built about 1590, and several times since 
cracked by earthquakes, are still serviceable against 
native attacks, but would not stand long against 
modern armies with heavy guns. Their tops are 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 401 

mounted with cannon two centuries old. The city 
itself consists of seventeen streets, of fair width and 
crossing at right angles. These are kept reasonably 
clean. As little business is done here, few people are 
seen in the streets, whose monotony and dull respecta- 
bility form a striking contrast to the bustling activity 
of the city beyond the stream. 

The public edifices, including the city hall, the 
cathedral, etc., are in a large square, whose centre con- 
tains a statue of Charles V., surrounded by a garden 
of flowers. The cathedral, built early in the history 
of the city, has been ruined several times since by 
earthquakes, the last time in 1880. It has been re- 
placed by a new cathedral, built of brick and stone, 
and the most imposing structure in the colony. It is 
celebrated for the splendor of its altars and interior 
decorations. Most of the great religious processions 
for which Manila is noted begin and end at its doors. 
Another of the imposing buildings of the city is the 
archbishop's palace, an extensive though not specially 
handsome edifice. The oldest church in the city is that 
of San Francisco. It is under the Franciscans, who 
have lavished money upon it, its interior being mag- 
nificent in decorations. 

The palace of the late governor-general is in Mala- 
canan, a suburb of the new city. It is massive in 
structure and wide in area, but low in elevation. 
Standing on the bank of the Pasig, it is surrounded 
by a garden of flowers and fruits famous for its luxu- 
riance. Here grow in rich profusion the most ex- 
quisite blooms of the tropical East and the most lus- 
cious and attractive fruits. The palace commands a 
fine view of the city and river, it having a large bal- 

26 



402 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

cony, from which the governor-general was accus- 
tomed to view the yearly boat-race that took place on 
the king's birthday. In its interior are many evidences 
of pomp and splendor, including a spacious ball-room 
where receptions were held, and to which, several 
times a year, the elite of the city were invited. 

Other edifices include the mint, museum, univer- 
sity, academy of arts, hospitals, arsenal, prison, bar- 
racks, convents, and monasteries. Outside the walls, 
extending along the bay shore, is the beautiful Lu- 
neta, the favorite resort of the aristocracy of Manila. 
It constitutes a drive and promenade, the carriage road 
passing each side of and around a slightly raised oval 
space, with chairs and benches for the people and two 
stands for bands. Deserted by day, it is thronged in 
the evening, carriages passing in a constant stream, 
while equestrians and pedestrians add to the throng. 

The Luneta of late years has gained a ghastly 
repute, a new and popular entertainment being pro- 
vided there which one would think even Spaniards 
could not enjoy, though they are said to have been 
keenly entertained. This was the execution of the 
prisoners taken during the insurrection. The helpless 
captives were lined up in numbers on the sea-wall and 
shot down by soldiers of their own race, at the com- 
mand of Spanish officers, and seemingly to the high 
enjoyment of crowds of Spanish spectators, who 
flocked to the scene as to a spectacle. 

While the population of the official city is small, 
that of Binondo (the new city) and of the suburbs is 
large, being estimated at from 250,000 to 300,000. 
The new city is as active as the old one is quiet and 
dull. Here are the large business houses, the retail 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 403 

and wholesale stores, the commercial warehouses, the 
bustle of carts and carriages, the constant coming and 
going which make the life of a centre of commercial 
activity. There is fairly good wharfage along the 
Pasig, and numbers of warehouses adjoining the 
stream, that intended for tobacco being specially ex- 
tensive. The edifice in which cigars were made for 
the state during the existence of the monopoly is vast 
in dimensions, 9000 women having been steadily em- 
ployed within its walls. 

Stone, brick, and tiles form the ordinary building 
materials of Binondo, though about one-third of the 
dwellings are the native wooden houses with thatch of 
nipa palm. The better class of houses follow the 
Spanish fashion, as seen in Cuba and Porto Rico, 
having a central patio or court, surrounded by shops, 
warehouses, stables, and domestic offices, the family 
occupying the floor above. This is built of wood, the 
lower story being of brick or stone. A gallery in the 
interior looking into the patio is a general feature, 
and a corridor near the street communicates with the 
apartments. Houses more than two stories high are 
rare. All the rooms have sliding windows, the small 
panes being made of flat, half-transparent oyster-shells, 
through which the full light of the sun cannot make 
its way. 

The apartments are large and are furnished much 
as in European houses, with mirrors, tables, chairs, 
sofas, paper on the walls and lamps hung from the 
ceilings, porcelain flower-vases, etc. Carpets are rare, 
fire-places lacking; the kitchen, to avoid heat, is 
separate from the dwelling. The heavy tiles formerly 
used in roofing have been replaced by galvanized iron. 



404 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

as lighter and less dangerous in the event of an earth- 
quake, a possibility always to be considered. Even in 
the night attire the earthquake is kept in view, people 
seeking their couches with sufficient clothing to enable 
them to make a presentable appearance in the street, 
if aroused and forced to flee by a midnight shake. 

The Philippine bed is an old-fashioned, imposing 
structure, with its four high posts and substantial 
frame. The modern springs are replaced by a net- 
work of cane, woven as in chair-seats. Lace curtains 
and mosquito netting depend from above. The bed 
is composed of a thin sleeping-mat, with a sheet or 
two, pillow, and bolster, the latter being used to sup- 
port the body, not the head, and to relieve the hard- 
ness of the mat. 

The native houses differ essentially from those of 
the Europeans. The old Malay idea of living over 
water, still practised by the Moros, appears in dwell- 
ings erected on hard ground, the house resting on a 
number of strong piles set in the ground, which lift 
it from five to ten feet into the air. The floor is made 
of strips of bamboo, their rounded sides turned up- 
ward and wide cracks between them. Bamboo also 
forms the framework, tied together with rattan, not a 
nail or a peg being used. The sides are made of split 
bamboo, beaten flat in its green state, or more com- 
monly of the stout leaves of the nipa palm, which are 
also employed for the roof. Swinging shades, which 
can be kept open during the day, answer for windows. 
To enter the door a ladder must be used. A single 
room often answers all the purposes of the house- 
hold, those of cooking, eating, and sleeping, a heap 
of earth in one corner serving to build the fire on for 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 405 

cooking, while the smoke is left to escape as it may. 
In the better dwellings there is a kitchen partitioned 
off and two or more other rooms. 

The streets of Manila are sadly lacking in the req- 
uisites of a modern city, being either unpaved or with 
a weak excuse for paving. Drainage is as sadly 
needed as paving, there being no satisfactory system 
of sewerage. The low-lying city is traversed by canals 
radiating from the Pasig River, and into these the filth 
of the city, where not heaped about the houses, is 
thrown or is washed by the rains. In the suburb of 
Tondo the site is so low as to prevent a free flow of 
the surface water, which gathers in stagnant pools 
under the huts during the rains. With the dry season 
comes the natural result, ill-smelling black mud and 
fever. There is, however, a good supply of wholesome 
water for drinking and cooking, the city being pro- 
vided with a system of water-works. The water is 
brought from Santolin, on the Pasig River. There are 
fountains at convenient places for the use of the poor. 

There are two lines of street-cars, one following the 
Escolto, the principal business street, and extending 
out through the residence part of the city; the other 
following Rosario Street, reaching the suburbs in one 
direction, and crossing the Puenta de Espafia to old 
Manila in the other. Each car is drawn by one horse, 
and its approach is announced by the sound of a 
small tin horn blown by the driver. The electric light 
has been introduced into the city to some extent, and 
the telephone is also in use. 

Along the Escolto are numerous Spanish stores, 
and some kept by French. German, and other mer- 
chants. They are well supplied with European goods, 



4o6 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

though the very high import duties under the Spanish 
administration kept these at a costly figure. Some of 
the many Chinese shops are also on the Escolto, but 
the most of them are on neighboring streets, espe- 
cially the Rosario, which they line from end to end. 
They offer for sale a surprising variety of goods, and 
the streets occupied by them are usually thronged 
with the common people of the city, though white 
men other than priests and friars are rarely seen 
among them. 

Here one meets hosts of the natives, the poor and 
the well-to-do, mestizos of Spanish and Chinese birth, 
sailors, coolies, and all classes, of varied costume and 
shades of complexion. The Chinese are abundantly 
represented, each shop having several of them, while 
outside the doors may be seen their native wives and 
half-breed children, the boys frequently in Chinese 
dress, the girls all wearing the native costume. Na- 
tive merchants usually do their vending in the streets, 
walking about or resting in the doorways, with fruit, 
flowers, and other articles for sale. The women are 
notably erect in attitude, due to the custom of carry- 
ing articles balanced on their heads. The hotels of 
the city have hitherto been nothing to boast of, but 
they are improving, and are sure to attain a marked 
development under American control. 

Old Manila and Binondo do not constitute the 
whole city. There are numerous suburbs or wards, 
fifteen or twenty in number, extending in all direc- 
tions around the city. Tondo lies on the bay, adjoin- 
ing Binondo. It is principally inhabited by natives, 
over 30,000 in number, and, owing to its combustible 
material, is frequently the scene of destructive fires. 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 407 

From this quarter comes most of the milk used in the 
capital, and it has some small manufactures. 

Two miles up the north bank of the river lies San 
Miguel, a residence quarter for Europeans, especially 
Spaniards. Santa Cruz has over 11,000 inhabitants, 
many of them merchants. Santa Ana is a favorite 
place of residence for merchants; Pasay is noted for 
its cultivation of the betel; and La Ermita and other 
villages are centres of production of the exquisite 
pifia handkerchiefs, which command very high prices. 
Malate is the seat of many public offices, and the 
women here are employed in ornamenting slippers 
with gold and silver embroidery. 

Of the suburbs of Manila, one of the most interest- 
ing is Cavite, on the bay shore several miles south of 
the walls of Old Manila, the seat of the arsenal and 
navy-yard and the port of refuge of large vessels m 
the event of stormy weather. It contains some hand- 
some residences and fine shops, a theatre, several 
cafes, and a large cathedral of old date. A fire m 1754 
destroyed most of the town, since which date stone 
and brick have replaced wood as building materials. 
Its history is of interest, it being deemed the key to 
the capital, and as such taken by the British in 1763. 
It was the seat of the most formidable rebellion of the 
natives before 1896, that of 1872, an outbreak due to 
hatred of the friars, which ended disastrously for the 
insurgents. But its most famous event was the attack 
of Commodore Dewey's squadron upon the Spanish 
fleet drawn up across the mouth of Bakor Bay, on 
whose shores Cavite is situated. Nothing needs to be 
said concerning this striking engagement. It has be- 
come an essential fact in American history. 



4o8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

To return to the habits of the Manila people, it 
may be said of the foreign residents that the use of 
the small but sturdy Philippine horse is almost uni- 
versal. As a rule, only the natives walk; everybody 
else rides; carriages throng the principal streets, or 
horsemen dash along, the little but spirited animals 
being capable of carrying a heavy rider and of racing 
at an excellent rate of speed. Thousands of carriages 
traverse the Escolto daily, giving this street a highly 
animated appearance. 

Only on three days in the year are the ponies given 
full rest from their labors. These are Holy Wednes- 
day and Thursday and Good Friday, on which days 
the use of carriages is permitted only to the arch- 
bishop and the doctors, the church-bells cease their 
endless jangling, and silence and solemnity prevail. 
The people are held in the leash, impatiently awaiting 
the end of the fast. On the first stroke of the bell 
announcing their release there is a rush to and fro, 
horses and vehicles suddenly appear in multitudes, 
and the streets resound again with the clamorous cries 
of the native venders. 

Among the excitements of Manila under Spanish 
rule were the religious processions, of which each year 
furnished occasion for several, and which were cele- 
brated with the utmost pomp and display and the 
greatest freedom of merry-making, dances, songs, 
music, fireworks, cock-fighting displays, and other 
entertainments giving liveliness to the occasion. The 
general character of these processions we have already 
described. 

Among the features of the city may be mentioned 
the numerous wayside native restaurants, most of 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 409 

them primitive in character, with little more than rice 
and fruits for sale, which are offered for a mere pit- 
tance. For two cents a native can satisfy his appetite, 
and to these establishments the multitude of cigar- 
makers and other workmen hasten at noon for a rapid 
lunch. They are poor, indeed, who need go hungry 
in Manila. 

Other interesting features of the streets are the 
water-girls, with great rude jars balanced upon their 
heads, and the pedlers of milk or cocoa. A native 
funeral is a peculiar spectacle, the hearse a rude 
wagon drawn by white horses, preceded by a brass 
band playing a brisk marching air and followed by a 
long line of carriages. The heat of the climate renders 
it necessary to have the funeral, as a general rule, on 
the day of the death. The bodies of the well-to-do are 
deposited in a vault in the church as long as the privi- 
lege is paid for, but the remains are finally dumped 
unceremoniously into a huge pit in the rear, into 
which the bodies of the poor go at once. All, finally, 
come to the pit. 

There are several theatres in Manila, but they are 
very poor concerns. The opera is the most popular 
form of amusement, and is thronged when foreign 
celebrities visit the city. The Filipinos are especially 
fond of theatrical entertainments, and rarely fail to be 
present in force when any play of interest is oflFered. 
Everybody smokes at the theatre, from the fashion- 
able ladies and gentlemen in the boxes to the gallery 
gods above. Pretty mestizo girls between the acts 
offer fragrant flowers for sale. A theatre night, when 
a good company has been secured, is one of the gayest 
and most popular events known to Manila. 



4IO OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

One thing remains to be said of this island capital: 
it is, in its way, the Venice of the East. The city lies 
at a considerably lower level than the lake which feeds 
the stream, and is traversed by numerous creeks and 
canals, which in the wet season are flooded with water 
from the overfull Pasig. At that period the water 
overflows the low-lying suburbs, washing beneath the 
pile-borne native houses, and boats ply in multitudes 
through the streets, which are for the time being con- 
verted into water-channels. 

ILOILO. 

Iloilo, the chief city on the island of Panay, has 
recently risen in commercial importance to the posi- 
tion of the second city of the archipelago, having 
passed Cebu, which formerly occupied that position. 
The commerce of the central Philippines is rapidly 
centring in this place. It is by no means an attrac- 
tive city, the principal part of it standing on low, 
yielding ground, formerly marsh land, and the whole 
town being overflowed during the spring tides. It 
partly fronts the sea, partly lies on the left bank of a 
creek. Its population is not large, the narrow tongue 
of land on which it is chiefly built forbidding exten- 
sion. Several towns in its close vicinity, Jaro, Molo, 
and Oton, surpass it in population, having from 15,000 
to over 30,000 each. 

The streets are unpaved, and are either unpleasantly 
dusty or muddy, as the dry or wet season prevails. 
There are a few good shops and some attractive resi- 
dences, but the public square, once handsomely laid 
out, has been sadly neglected: there are no places of 
amusement, and the whole town sadly needs a more 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 411 

progressive element. The traders are mostly Chinese 
mestizos, many of whom are wealthy. 

The commercial interests are conducted mainly by 
English and German firms, and consist principally in 
the exportation of sugar, in which Iloilo exceeds Ma- 
nila. The sapan-wood of Negros and Panay is also 
shipped from this port. The surrounding country is 
very fertile and is widely cultivated, its products in- 
cluding tobacco and rice in addition to sugar. But 
the poor facilities for transportation from the interior 
interfere seriously with the development of the port. 

Iloilo enjoys a more agreeable climate than Manila. 
This is due to the neighboring island of Guimaras, 
which is much higher than the coast region of Panay, 
so that it forms a sort of funnel, through which draws 
a constant breeze, adding very acceptably to the cool- 
ness and healthfulness of the town. 

CEBU. 

Cebu, the third centre of Philippine commerce, is 
on the east coast of the island of Cebu or Zebu, as 
variously spelled. It is a clean, well-built town, with 
the unusual distinction in the Philippines of having 
good carriage roads leading from it. How far they 
continue good is another matter. It has a population 
of something over 10,000, and is the seat of numerous 
churches, it being the see of a bishop. In addition to 
the cathedral, there are several churches of some in- 
terest, that of Santo Nino de Cebu being notable as 
built in honor of the most ancient and famous of the 
Philippine religious images. The Santo Nino dates 
from 1565, the year of origin of the city, it being 
found on the island shore by a soldier, and decided 



412 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

to be an image of the Christ Child fallen from heaven. 
It is, in consequence, very highly venerated; a festival 
in its honor being held on January 20, when the image 
is exhibited, and pilgrims gather from all quarters to 
see it. It is of ebony, about fifteen inches high, and is 
half covered with silver trinkets. 

Cebu was the capital of the Philippines from 1565 
to 1 571, and up to 1759 had a municipal government. 
This was then abolished, as the place possessed but 
one Spaniard capable of acting as a city councillor, 
while the mayor had been turned out of office for the 
not unusual crime of cruelty. The government was 
restored in 1890. As a commercial centre Cebu is the 
leading place for the exportation of hemp, and also 
ships much sugar, most of which comes from the 
plantations of Leyte, Camaguin, and Mindanao. The 
character of the harbor we have already described. 



OTHER TOWNS. 

The remaining towns call for no extended descrip- 
tion. There are several hundred in all, including vil- 
lages, but only a few of them are of any importance. 
Zamboango, the leading town of Mindanao, on its 
southwest extremity, is one of the oldest Spanish set- 
tlements, having originally been taken and fortified as 
a convenient base of operations against the Moro 
pirates of Sulu. The old stone fort, built as a place of 
shelter for the inhabitants if attacked, still stands. The 
town is spacfous and is kept in a respectable state of 
cleanliness. Its pier extends out to water of some 
depth, but not sufficient for large vessels, which have 
to lie well of? shore. Many of the inhabitants appear 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 413 

to be the descendants of slaves escaped from the 
Moros. 

Sulu, once the capital of the Moros, and the central 
seat of their piratical raids, has of recent years been 
held by a Spanish garrison, whom the truculent in- 
habitants of the island have not left in peace. Under 
the famous General Arolas this place was made a 
spectacle of '' how to do it" for the Philippine Span- 
iards. He found it a pest-hole and converted it into 
a place of unusual healthfulness. He built a splendid 
market, constructed water-works, erected a hospital, 
and established a free-school system. The fortifica- 
tions were strengthened by the Moros themselves, 
they being made prisoners and compelled to work on 
the ramparts. Since the return of this energetic gov- 
ernor to Spain, the Moros, long cowed by his severity, 
have regained much of their old combativeness and 
made some virulent attacks upon the Spaniards. 

Capiz, on the north coast of Panay, is a town of 
some 25,000 inhabitants, seated in the midst of a very 
productive district, its inhabitants being fairly well to 
do. They include about 100 Spaniards and a large 
number of Spanish mestizos, who are wealthy and in- 
fluential. Large quantities of alcohol, of high grade 
of purity, are made in its vicinity from the sap of the 
nipa palm. 

Dumaguete, on Negros Island, is a town of about 
8000 inhabitants, few of them white. The shops are 
kept by Chinese. It is in a fertile district, the people 
are prosperous, and the public buildings large and 
showy. Bacolod is the capital of this island, and con- 
tains, in addition to the church and government house, 
some handsome residences. It is a coast-town, but 



414 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the water is shallow and steamers cannot approach 
within a half mile. Calapan is the capital of Mindoro, 
which is about all that need be said concerning it. 
It lies in a region of very heavy rainfall, and has no 
anchorage, the surf often running so heavily that 
steamers cannot even land the mails. 

Luzon, the most thickly populated island, contains 
a number of towns in addition to those already men- 
tioned. Majajay, not far distant from Manila, is a 
picturesque mountain town, with church and convent 
and many handsome residences. It is surrounded by 
magnificent scenery, its chief attraction being the 
waterfall of Botocan, 600 feet high and 60 feet wide. 
Not far distant, but 1000 feet higher, stands Lugbang, 
crossed by several canals and surrounded by extensive 
rice fields. 

Lipa, the capital of Batangas province, is a centre 
of the coffee trade. Many wealthy planters live in the 
vicinity, and most of its houses are three stories high. 
Its church and convent are notable buildings. Taal. 
formerly near the volcano of that name, was destroyed 
by the earthquake of 1754, and is now built in a hill 
region, among sugar plantations and great forests. It 
has a considerable trade, by way of the Pasig River, 
with Manila, and its streets are lined with modern 
shops and spacious residences. With its suburbs it 
has a population of 50,000. 

The principal towns of the north are Ilagan, the 
capital of the tobacco-raising province of Isabella, 
with between 10,000 and 15,000 inhabitants, and 
Aparri, at the mouth of the Cagayan River, with 
20,000 population and considerable trade. It has 
some good streets and many handsome houses. 



CENTRES OF POPULATION. 415 

Other towns of some importance are Batangas, 
capital of Batangas province; Santa Cruz, capital of 
Laguna province; Silan, noted for its religious feasts 
and fairs; Carmona, Viiian, Tayabas, and Calamba. 
Near the last is the town of Los Bafios, at which are 
hot springs, credited with value in rheumatic com- 
plaints. This place was once a popular resort, and 
might be made so again. A few miles distant, at an 
elevation of 1200 feet, is the boiling lake of Natungos, 
also possessed of excellent curative properties. In 
the province of Albay, near the volcano of Mayon, 
are sulphur springs which are celebrated for their 
curative properties. Here is an excellent location for 
a sanatorium, awaiting some enterprising American. 



/ 



VI^ THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES, 

The Malay race, wherever found, possesses certain 
strongly marked characteristics, all of which appear 
in the character of the Filipinos. The native is a 
born stoic, a natural fatalist: his stoicism visible in his 
impassive demeanor and imperturbable bearing, his 
fatalism in his coolness when exposed to danger, and 
his daring in the face of overwhelming odds. Well 
led, he makes a good soldier, though he is averse to 
discipline. General Gordon speaks thus of the Philip- 
pine troops who formed part of his forces in the China 
war: 

" They are a fine, sturdy body of fellows, faithful 
and long-suffering, bearing hardships without mur- 
murs, plucky and never losing heart in defeat, and 
considerably superior to the Japanese.'^ 

As sailors they have no superior, the Filipinos dis- 
playing that instinctive love of the water and inclina- 
tion for a sea-life which we have already seen in the 
Hawaiians, and which seem to belong to the Malay 
blood. For centuries past the wilder spirits of the 
race have made piracy their occupation, pursuing this 
lawless avocation with a reckless daring and a blood- 
thirsty cruelty that long made them the terror of the 
Eastern seas. These piratical incursions continued, 
in the case of the Moros, until within comparatively a 
few years. 
416 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 417 

But the cruelty of the pirates should not be charged 
against the race as a whole, any more than we should 
consider the cruelty of the West Indian buccaneers a 
general characteristic of Europeans. These pirates 
were the outlaws of their race, preying upon their own 
peaceful countrymen, and visiting upon the Spaniards 
an old debt of vengeance. 

The natives are as thorough water-dogs as the 
native Hawaiians. They are excellent swimmers, and 
seem absolutely devoid of fear in the boiling surf, in 
which they disport themselves — men, women, and 
children — with the wild delight and fearlessness of the 
Hawaiian surf-riders. Many of them swim with ease 
for miles/and groups of naked men do not hesitate to 
plunge, dagger in hand, among a shoal of sharks, 
which dangerous animals they attack with a fierceness, 
alertness, and skill that always bring victory to the 
natives and death to the sharks. As for the boys, they 
are as alert and skilful as those of the harbor of Hono- 
lulu, diving thirty or forty feet for pennies flung into 
the waves, and rarely failing to bring them up. 
/ Calm and impassive as is the native, he is not secre- 
• live, but is more apt to be loquacious. While innately 
polite, and respectful to superiors, he is curious and 
inquisitive, being possessed of an eager thirst for in- 
formation. He has the faults of the half-civilized, — 
improvidence and shiftlessness, and the indolence that 
seems characteristic of all tropical peoples, and is 
an almost necessary result of the enervating climate. 
The most energetic Europeans involuntarily yield to 
it after a few years, and it seems inherent in those 
born to the situation. 

The Filipino is a philosopher. He works when he 
27 



4i8 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

must, but takes every opportunity to rest. Nature 
does most of his work, and he has Httle occasion for 
active exercise, so that most of his time is his own. 
His needs are few and easily satisfied, and the fertile 
soil, warm sun, and moist atmosphere do for him what 
only hard work can do for the farmer of the colder 
zones. /Laborers on the plantations, therefore, are not 
to be easily procured, or kept when obtained; a fact 
which acts as a serious detriment to plantation en- 
terprises in the Philippines. Slaves are not to be 
had, and the native laborer cannot be trusted. He is 
unwilling to work without pay in advance, and after 
receiving his money is apt to refuse to work. The 
employer has no remedy but through the law, which, 
under the Spanish system, was so dilatory and expen- 
sive that the cure often proved worse than the disease. 
Yet the difificulty has been partly a result of the situa- 
tion. Thousands of natives work in the factories of 
Manila, and hundreds of thousands in the districts 
where just and humane business methods prevail. 
The trouble in procuring laborers has doubtless been 
due as much to Spanish mismanagement as to Malay 
indolence and lack of good faith. 
/ Yet the Filipino has a reason for his indolence 
whose force all must admit./ One native is quoted by 
Worcester as having said to his employer, whose ser- 
vice he had decided to quit, " Sefior, if you were back 
at your home in Andalusia, living in a house as fine as 
any in the province: if your food and clothing were 
not only as good as any of vour neighbors could 
boast, but were all that you yourself desired: if you 
had money enough for all present and future wants — 
would you turn your back up to a sun as hot as this 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 419 

and work?" Could there be better logic? ^ If there 
is nothing worth working for, why work in such a 
climate? / 

/ The Filipino morally is a curious compound. While 
exceptionally kind and gentle in his home relations, 
he is, like partly civilized peoples in general, apt to be 
cruel to his foes. Passionate when roused, he can be 
wrought up by injustice and oppression to a wild 
frenzy, in which, reckless of life and craving only ven- 
geance, he runs amuck through crowded streets, kill- 
ing indiscriminately all he meets until slain himself. 
Fortunately, these frenzied outbursts of the blood- 
thirst are of rare occurrence. They are similar in 
character to the outbreaks of murderous religious 
fanaticism among the Moros, already described. 

At home the Filipino is a model. Family affection 
is strong in his nature, and no people could be fonder 
of or kinder to their children, who, as a rule, are re- 
spectful and well-behaved. The noisy and disrespect- 
ful children of American and European cities are un- 
known in Philippine villages. The old people are 
venerated and tenderly cared for, while poor relatives 
may be seen in many households, as kindly welcomed 
as if members of the family. Indeed, the Filipino is 
natively hospitable. Guests are always welcomed, and 
the better class embrace every opportunity to enter- 
tain their neighbors or casual visitors. 

The character of the people is thus succinctly 
summed up by a former British consul at Manila, his 
statement being quoted and endorsed by the Ameri- 
can traveller, Dean C. Worcester: 

" Rarely is an intertropical people a satisfactory one 
to eye or mind. But this cannot be said of the Philip- 



420 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

pine Malay, who, in bodily formation and mental char- 
acteristics alike, may fairly claim a place, not among 
the middle ones merely, but among the higher names 
inscribed upon the world's national scale. He is char- 
acterized by a concentrated, never-absent self-respect; 
an habitual self-restraint in word and deed, very rarely 
broken, except when extreme provocation induces the 
transitory but fatal frenzy known as ' amuck ;' an in- 
bred courtesy, equally diffused through all classes, 
high or low; by unfailing decorum, prudence, caution, 
quiet, cheerfulness, ready hospitality, and a correct 
though not inventive taste. His family is a pleasing 
sight — much subordination and little constraint; uni- 
son in gradation; liberty, not license; orderly chil- 
dren, respected parents; women subject but not op- 
pressed; men ruling but not despotic; reverence with 
kindness, obedience in afifection, — these form a lovable 
picture by no means rare in the villages of the eastern 



isles.y 



One hospitable custom is common in the interior. 
Little bamboo frames may be seen supported by a post 
or projecting from a window, on which, covered with 
plantain leaves, is placed a supply of food or fruits, of 
which any passing traveller is free to partake, paying 
something if able, but nothing if poor. The bounty is 
free alike to those able and those unable to pay. 
/ As a rul^e, the natives are superstitious and very 
credulous, 'these qualities having been developed and 
encouraged in them by 300 years of priestly control. 
/The educated native, however, is an apt convert to 
the conclusions of modern research, as is attested by 
numerous instances of men of talent and ability. 

The Filipino is rarely humorous and seldom witty. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILU'PINES. 421 

Though passionate when roused, he is slow to anger; 
but if unjustly punished, he will treasure up the wrong 
for years, until an opportunity for revenge is pre- 
sented. Courageous by nature, he despises cowardice 
and pusillanimity, and in consequence cordially dis- 
likes the meek Chinaman, who is ready to pocket any 
insult in his thirst for gain. On the contrary, he has 
great esteem for the European, in whom he recognizes 
qualities similar to his own, and whom he will follow 
into any danger. While easily awed by a show of 
force, he is best ruled by mild measures based upon 
justice. He lacks ambition, unless to make a fine dis- 
play in a procession or other social event; and is sober, 
patient, and always clean, being as fond of bathing as 
the Hawaiians. Men and women bathe in the same 
place, partly clothed. Every village has its bath, 
where possible; and if water is lacking it will be car- 
ried from a considerable distance, through the desire 
to keep clean. 

The native, indeed, seems half amphibious, passing 
much of his time in the water. He appears insensible 
alike to the burning sun and the drenching rain, and 
generally has good health, his medicines being herbs 
whose usefulness long experience has proved. Tt has 
been said of him that he is more of a quadruped than a 
biped, his large hands and pliant toes enabling him to 
climb trees easily, and perform other active functions 
not easy to Europeans. 

In the words of Sir John Bowring: " He receives 
no favors, and cannot, therefore, be ungrateful; has 
little ambition, and therefore little disquiet; few wants, 
and hence is neither jealous nor envious: does not 
concern himself with the affairs of his neighbor, nor 



422 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

indeed does he pay much regard to his own. His 
master vice is idleness, which is his fehcity 

"He uses no soap to wash, no razor to shave; the 
river is his bathing-place, and he pulls out the hairs 
in his face with the assistance of a sharp shell; he 
wants no clock to tell him of the flight of time, and no 
table, nor chairs, nor plates, nor cutlery, to assist him 
at his meals ; a hacha, or large knife, and bag are gen- 
erally hung at his waist; he thinks no music equal to 
the crowing of his cock, and holds a shoe to be as 
superfluous as a glove or a neck-collar." 

One striking characteristic of the Filipino we may 
extract from the recent work of Ramon Lala, himself 
of native birth: "As a result of the stoicism of the 
native character, he never bewails a misfortune and 
has no fear of death. When anything happens, he 
merely says, ' It is fate,' and calmly goes about his 
business as if nothing had happened. Europeans often 
seem to notice in them what they deem a lack of sym- 
pathy for the misfortunes of others; but it is not this 
so much as resignation to the inevitable. This, it 
must be confessed, saves them many a bitter pang. 
The educated native, however, impregnated with the 
bitter philosophy of the civilized world, is by no means 
so imperturbable. While more keenly alive to the suf- 
ferings of others, he is also more sensitive to his own 
sorrows. After all, whether he is any happier for his 
wisdom is a question." 

The Filipino enjoys litigation far too much for his 
own good, and is always ready to go to law./ He has 
some degree of artistic taste, and there are several 
examples of painters of marked talent, while consider- 
able literary ability has been shown by educated na- 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 423 

tives. It is in music, however, that he seems most 
likely to make his mark. Every village has its orches- 
tra, and music is the highest delight of the natives, 
who will listen entranced for hours together to the 
playing of their bands/^ 

To quote again from Lala: ''All the people are 
born musicians; even little boys and girls of five or 
six years of age play the harp, the guitar, or the 
piano as if by instinct; while their elders show a pro- 
ficiency that, when their opportunities are considered, 
is truly astonishing." 

DWELLINGS, FOOD, AND DRESS, 

We have already described the house of the native 
laborer of Manila. The dwellings of the poorer peo- 
ple in the rural districts are closely similar, structures 
of bamboo thatched with palm, and raised on posts 
five or six feet from the ground. The eaves are broad, 
and the window openings, destitute of glass or shell, 
as in the better houses, have palm-leaf shutters hung 
at the top and propped open during the day. These 
shed the rain and keep out the sun. At night they are 
tightly closed. The house has usually two rooms, its 
furniture consisting of sleeping-mats, pillows, and per- 
haps a few wicker stools. The kitchen utensils are of 
the most primitive character, the stove an earthen 
affair like a brazier, with projecting knuckles to hold 
the cooking-vessel. Sometimes the space under the 
house is enclosed by mats; but it is oftener left open, 
and is used as a storehouse for the water-jars and 
wash-tubs, the latter hollowed out of a f^at block of 
wood. The house is usually as clean and tidy as con- 
stant scrubbing and care can keep it. 



424 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

A system of reconcentration, somewhat similar to 
that in Cuba, was practised here by the Spaniards 
throughout the districts in rebelHon. To prevent the 
native peasantry from giving aid and assistance to the 
rebels, they were forced to leave their huts, scattered 
widely over the country, and to assemble in large vil- 
lages where they could be under inspection and con- 
trol. Thus we find great groups of small, cheap huts, 
where the peasants are crowded together far from 
their tillage grounds. Their domestic arrangements 
are of the simplest. *' The beds of the Indians are 
merely mats, on which the whole family repose in- 
discriminately. Here they smoke their cigars, chew 
their betel, and fall asleep." 

The custom of elevating the house is wide-spread 
throughout the archipelago. The Moros, where pos- 
sible, build theirs on piles in shallow water. The un- 
civilized Tagbanuas, of Palawan, perch their small 
houses high in the air, upon lofty bamboo poles. The 
more savage natives, of the mountain regions, build 
mere rude shelters, composed of poles covered with 
a few palm leaves. 

The more prosperous native planter possesses a 
dwelling superior in size and comfort to that of the 
poorer peasant; raised like his above the ground, but 
provided with sliding windows with translucent shell 
panes, divided into a number of rooms, and the outer 
walls painted in bright colors and decorated with gro- 
tesque carvings. It has more furniture, including 
chairs and table, a chandelier with globes of colored 
glass, and some pictures on the walls, which are 
covered with cloth instead of plaster, as better suited 
to earthquake shocks. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 425 

The marked cleanliness of the people, their constant 
bathing, washing, and scrubbing, has one good effect, 
they are much less annoyed by insect pests than in 
other tropical countries. Mosquitoes are the most 
persistent, and they seem mild as compared with those 
of many other localities. Of course, insects and rep- 
tiles are numerous; but many of those which infest 
the houses are harmless, and the little lizards which 
one sees running over the walls are engaged in the 
innocent and useful exercise of catching flies and mos- 
quitoes. 

Rice is the ordinary food of the natives. It is boiled 
for half an hour, and capsicum, or chilly, is used as a 
condiment. They help themselves with their fingers 
out of a large dish, or sometimes use a plantain leaf 
for a plate. Around the dish are sauces, into which 
they dip the canin, or boiled rice. Fish, sweet potatoes, 
and vegetables add some variety to their diet. One 
writer tells us that " They are great consumers of fish, 
which are found in immense abundance. After rains 
the fields and marshes and ponds are full of them. 
Fish two palms long are often pulled up from among 
the paddy [rice plants]. As the waters dry up, the 
fish retreat to any muddy recess, and the Indians catch 
them with their hands or kill them with sticks." 
What becomes of the fish when there are no " muddy 
recesses" it is difficult to say, but they always reappear 
after the rains. 

The sugar-cane serves the native for sweetmeats, 
and his two luxuries are the cigar and the betel-nut. 
In fact, these may be called necessaries, as they are 
constantly used. The cigarette can be bought at a 
very low price, and the cost of the areca, or betel-nut. 



426 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

is extremely small, so that there is no check to indul- 
gence in these sources of enjoyment. 

The betel-nut is used for a double purpose. It dyes 
the teeth black and imparts a deep red color to the 
lips, — these being considered marks of beauty by 
Malay women. And it produces continuous and sus- 
tained exhilarating effects, highly agreeable to those 
accustomed to its use. It causes giddiness to the un- 
accustomed. 

The betel-nut is the fruit of Areca catechu. A small 
quantity of lime is placed on a piece of the nut, and 
enclosed in a leaf of siri, or betel-pepper. This is 
rubbed violently against the front gums, the teeth 
being tightly closed. It is then chewed for a moment, 
and afterwards held between the teeth and lips, while 
a stream of red saliva flows from the mouth. A small 
piece of tobacco is often used with the betel. 

The dress of the Filipinos is very simple. The men 
wear a loose shirt or blouse outside of a pair of panta- 
loons, — the shirt of native manufacture, made of abaca, 
or Manila hemp. The pantaloons are of cotton, white 
or striped with various colors, and girded round the 
waist with a kerchief, whose folds serve for pockets. 
The head is covered with a kerchief or a straw hat, or 
more commonly with a broad circular cap like an 
inverted punch-bowl, with a metal spike at the top 
for ornament. It is made of bamboo, or sometimes of 
tortoise-shell, and fastened by a ribbon under the chin. 

The wealthy wear shirts made of the costly pina 
cloth, handsomely embroidered, and of various colors, 
bright red being predominant. These sometimes are 
worth $ioo each. A small, exquisitely woven and 
embroidered pina handkerchief sent to the Queen of 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 427 

Spain is said to have cost $500. The pantaloons are 
made of silk. The feet of the peasants are bare, those 
of the better class protected by sandals. One occa- 
sionally sees a mestizo in Manila dressed in an exag- 
gerated European costume, his feet in patent-leather 
shoes, and a black Derby hat on his head. The hat is 
particularly prized, and is the first article of European 
dress adopted by the native. 

The women dress as simply as the men, their attire 
consisting of a flowing skirt of gay colors, with an 
overskirt of dark color, composed of a square of cot- 
ton cloth, wound tightly round the body from waist to 
knees and tucked in at the waist. A white cotton 
chemise, low-necked and short-sleeved, covers the 
body. Outside of this the opulent wear a broad, loose- 
sleeved jacket of the thinnest possible piiia cloth, sup- 
plemented, when in full dress, by a large kerchief of 
the same material. More commonly, however, the 
kerchief is of cotton and the jacket of Manila hemp. 
Stockings are not considered necessities of the situa- 
tion, and the women go barefooted like the men. 
They wear no hat or other head-gear, their heads being 
protected by the baskets or bundles which they carry 
with the utmost grace and ease of motion. 

The women of pure native blood are often very 
comely. They have a wide, oval face, rather flat in 
profile, a well-formed but broad nose, well-cut mouth 
and fine teeth, large, dark, and expressive eyes, a 
strong but small chin, and a low forehead, the sleek 
black hair being drawn tightly back and twisted into 
a simple knot. They arc far more industrious than 
the men, and also more cheerful and devout. Morality 
prevails among them, marital irregularity being almost 



428 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

unknown, though jealousy is a common characteristic 
of the men. 

The women of the better class are proud of their 
small feet, which, in full dress, they thrust into a heel- 
less slipper, supported by the toes, and shuffled with 
lazy grace. They even contrive to dance in these 
slippers, which are often embroidered with gold or 
silver. The knot of their abundant hair is fastened by 
a comb and gilded needles, and adorned with a fra- 
grant flower. A white mantle is thrown over it on 
dress occasions. They have a graceful and rather 
coquettish walk, and are somewhat given to languid 
glances of their liquid, lustrous eyes. The mode of 
embracing is by touching noses, though a kiss often 
accompanies this act. Their exquisite sense of smell 
may perhaps have something to do with this custom. 

POPULAR AMUSEMENTS. 

One favorite form of entertainment in Spain and her 
colonies, the bull-fight, has never gained a footing in 
the Philippines. There is, indeed, a bull-ring at Paco, 
a suburb of Manila, but the people of the better class 
avoid its shows, and it affords but a sorry spectacle. 
But gambling of one sort or another is widely indulged 
in, and the lottery and the cock-fight have long flour- 
ished in the land. Games of hazard are prohibited by 
law, but the lottery, as an institution from which the 
government gained half a million dollars annually, has 
been diligently fostered, the tickets being sold not only 
throughout the island, but even in Hong-Kong and 
along the coast of China. Many a poor native has 
spent his last dollar for a lottery chance and gone to 
jail in default of money to pay his taxes. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHUJIM^INES. 429 

Among the games which are not prohibited is one 
called by the natives pangiiingui, which is played with 
six packs of cards, five or six persons making a party. 
It is so popular with all classes that the authorities 
forbade it during working hours, but permitted it to 
be played from twelve to two p.m., and from sunset to 
ten P.M. On festival days there was no restriction. 

Kite-flying, a form of amusement introduced by the 
Chinese, is popular in the Philippines, as are also 
fire-balloons and other pyrotechnic displays, also of 
Chinese introduction. Gun-firing, illuminations, and 
music, the last in particular, are features of all the re- 
ligious feasts. So much, indeed, is demanded of the 
musicians that it is stated that they are not admitted 
to the bands unless they can play eight hours without 
cessation. Smoking is another Philippine passion, 
cigars and cigarettes being served at every entertain- 
ment and used on every possible occasion. 

But the one overpowering delight of the native 
Filipino is the cock-fight, which may be called the 
national vice of the islanders, and the custom in which 
the passion for gambling has its fullest vent. The man 
is poor who does not own at least one game-cock, 
which he may commonly be seen carrying under his 
arm, caressing it and talking to it as if to a child. 

The Spanish had laws controlling cock-fighting, but 
only that they might obtain from it all possible 
revenue. As a rule, it was limited to Sundays and 
feast-days, and on these occasions the seats surround- 
ing the gallcra, or cock-pit, were sure to be crowded. 
The cocks are not left to depend upon the spurs pro- 
vided by nature: a keen gaf¥, two inches or more in 
length, being tied to the left leg of each, so that chance 



430 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

is as common an element as skill in deciding the con- 
test. The amount of betting has long been regulated 
by law, — no person being permitted to wager more 
than fifty dollars on a fight ; but to this restriction little 
heed is paid. 

*'The Indians," says Buzeta, "have an inveterate 
passion for the sport, which occupies the first place in 
their amusements. The cock is the first object of their 
care, their general companion, which accompanies 
them even to the church-door, and is fastened to a 
bamboo plug outside when they enter for the service 
of the mass. For no money will they dispose of a 
favorite bird. Some possess as many as half a dozen 
of these inappreciable treasures, for whose service they 
seem principally to live." 

Bowring says, " It is considered a discourtesy to 
touch an Indian's game-cock, and permission is always 
asked to examine a favorite bird. He is the object of 
many a caress; he eats, crows, and sleeps in the arms 
of his master; and, whatever else may be forgotten, 
the cock is in continual remembrance. I have found 
him celebrated in verse in terms the most affectionate. 
A cock that has been frequently victorious is subjected 
to the most minute criticism, in order to discover by 
external marks what may serve to characterize his 
merit." 

"The traveller," says Worcester, depicting another 
phase of the situation, " soon comes to detest game- 
cocks; for he is often compelled to pass the night in 
the same room with them, and they begin to crow 
about three in the morning, after which time sleep is 
impossible." 

It is not necessary here to describe a cock-fight. It 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 431 

is a mode of amusement not restricted to the tropics, 
and whose characteristics are well known. In betting, 
the Filipinos fling their money into the cock-pit and 
pick up their winnings after the fight. There is little 
desire to claim money not won. That would be a 
dangerous experiment with the hot-tempered natives. 

Of another of the popular amusements, the religious 
feast-day and procession, sufficient has already been 
said. There is nothing which the native more thor- 
oughly enjoys; the glitter and garish show of the 
parade, the music, fire-works, feasts, and other holiday 
accompaniments, all appealing warmly to his imagina- 
tion, and forming, doubtless,' an essential part of what 
is spoken of as his religion. 

Much as the Filipino loves music, he loves the dance 
as well, and many of his hours of festivity are spent in 
the enjoyment of these two elements of delight. In 
addition to the Spanish dances, there are native ones 
which are still more enjoyed, dances into which the 
love sentiment enters as an essential element. 

There is a favorite dance in which a girl goes 
through the whole gamut of the love passion in song 
and movement, opening with a low and plaintive air, 
accompanied by slow and simple movements, as if in- 
dicative of unrequited love. Then her tones become 
louder and her movements livelier, the supple curves 
of her graceful form being warmly significant of grow- 
ing passion. She feigns anger. She stamps her foot, 
now petulantly, now angrily, passionate fury showing 
in the expression of her deep-flushed face. Still she 
sings as she dances, her voice eloquent with passion, 
her body swaying backward and forward in rhythmic 
unison with her song. Her tones of passion, scorn, 



432 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and defiance finally give place to a note of triumph; 
her face glows with ecstasy, and she bounds forward, 
her long, loose hair flowing behind her, like a vision 
of joy. Then slowly her tone sinks to a gentle sound 
of soft content, and she blushingly withdraws. 

A second dance, in which two young men and a girl 
take part, typifies the old story of jealous rivalry on 
the part of the men, and of tantalizing coquetry on 
that of the maiden; all told in a series of dance move- 
ments as striking and expressive as original. A 
stranger might suppose that what he saw was serious 
earnest, a real drama of the heart, so realistic is the 
dramatic feeling with which the dance is performed. 

These are not all. There is still another native 
dance, in w^hich a girl and a man take part, of the sug- 
gestive and voluptuous character seen in the Hawaiian 
hula-hula and various other dances of tropical lands. 
It is an exhibition quite out of accord with Western 
ideas of propriety, but which the natives view as a 
matter of course. 

The Filipinos have their actual dramas, some of 
them fairly good, — if no high standard is set, — though 
a very thin texture of plot, if it but cover an abundance 
of bombast, love scenes, shows of sufTfering, and other 
evidences of passion and feeling, is all the native is apt 
to demand. The moro-moro play is a sort of miracle- 
play, in which the stage is filled with royal personages, 
chiefs, soldiers, and persons with Biblical names; a 
tragic show full of murder, revenge, retribution, and 
all evil acts and passions. With these is mingled a 
coarse humor, shown by the stage fool and lads who 
represent women. It is devoid, however, of grossness, 
— probably the Church sees to that. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 433 

There is one characteristic of the native to which 
some allusion should be made, — the utter ease with 
which he deviates from the truth and the little sense of 
moral delinquency which he attaches to falsehood. It 
will suffice to quote from Worcester's " Philippine 
Islands:" 

"The civilized natives seldom voluntarily confess 
faults, and often lie most unconscionably to conceal 
some trivial shortcoming. In fact, they frequently lie 
without any excuse whatever, unless it be the aesthetic 
satisfaction derived from the exercise of their remark- 
able talent in this direction. When one of them is de- 
tected in a falsehood, he is simply chagrined that his 
performance was not more creditably carried out. He 
feels no sense of moral guilt, and cannot understand 
being punished for what is not, to his mind, an of- 
fence." 

The natives usually marry early, the brides being 
often not more than eleven or twelve years of age. 
The marriage-day is one of much pomp and ceremony, 
and is of importance to the priest, who expects a fee 
large in proportion to the means of the parties con- 
cerned. 

On the evening before the ceremony the bride and 
groom go to confession and receive absolution. On 
the next morning they leave the house of the bride, 
their relatives following in a long procession. After 
the saying of mass, the priest places a thick mantle 
over their shoulders, typical of their bodily union. 
The ceremony is then performed, the only special feat- 
ure being that, as the bride and groom are leaving the 
church, a bowl of coin is handed them. The husband 
takes from it a handful of coins which he gives to his 

28 



434 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

wife, who on her part returns them to the bowl. This 
signifies that he presents to her his worldly goods. 

They return home to a banquet, at which all the 
notables of the village as well as the relatives are pres- 
ent, and all the delicacies of the season are served up. 
Special dances and songs follow. The marriage is 
always arranged by the parents of the young couple, 
the father of the groom furnishing a dowry for the 
bride. The property of the wife is her own to dispose 
of, the husband having no right of inheritance in it, — 
a regulation which adds to the importance of the 
woman's position in the family. 

THE MESTIZOS. 

The mestizos, or half-breeds, have been already ad- 
verted to, and little more needs to be said concerning 
them, since in most respects they conform in mode of 
life to the customs of the civilized natives. They are 
usually the children of Chinese or Spanish fathers and 
native mothers, largely of the former, though the 
Spanish mestizos occupy the superior place in the 
community. The latter are generally handsome, and 
are more intelligent, enterprising, and energetic than 
the pure natives, many of them becoming wealthy 
merchants and attaining positions of influence. 

Many of the mestiza women and girls are beautiful, 
with a soft olive complexion, red lips, pearly teeth, and 
liquid black eyes. Their hair, like that of the native 
women, is of a glossy black, reaching frequently to 
the ground. They are very proud of it, and also of 
their small feet, when endowed with them by nature. 
To enhance the seeming smallness of their feet, they 
often wear slippers much too small for them, and 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 435 

leaving one or more of the toes outside. They are Uthe 
and graceful in movement and are famed for their 
dancing. Those educated in the convent schools are 
trained in music and possess other accomplishments. 

The fair mestizas wear the native dress, the camisa, 
or waist, and the pafiiielo, or neck-kerchief, being, with 
those of wealth, made of the beautiful and costly pifia, 
or pineapple silk, which is handsomely embroidered. 
This dress, with the gay-colored skirt and long train, 
is very pretty, and is so comfortable in its adaptation 
to the climate that many of the European ladies wear 
it as a home attire. 

The characteristics of the Spanish mestizo soon dis- 
appear if not maintained by admixture of blood in the 
second or later generations. This is not the case with 
the Chinese mestizos, whose characteristic quahties 
are more lasting, — probably from the close aiifinity of 
the two races. These half-breeds, known as mestizo 
Chinos, possess a higher degree of intelligence than the 
natives, and have much of the business shrewdness of 
their paternal stock. Many of the prominent mer- 
chants of Manila are of this descent. They are, how- 
ever, tricky in their dealing's, and are not liked or 
trusted by the people. '' They have the mongrel stamp 
and a cunning, shifty look." Many of them took part 
with the rebels during the recent insurrection; a fact 
which made the high-class natives slow in joining the 
insurgents; they being strongly disinclined to connect 
themselves with the despised mestizos, even against 
the hated Spaniards. 



436 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

THE MOROS. 

The fierceness and love of war of the Moros of the 
Sulu Islands and Mindanao distinguish them markedly 
from the much more peaceful natives of the north. 
The men are of medium height, but are often superb 
in physical development, and dress tastefully in panta- 
loons, waistcoat, jacket, sash, and turban. Their pan- 
taloons are skin-tight below the knee and loose above, 
and are usually of scarlet or some other bright color. 
Rows of shining buttons ornament the sides. If fight- 
ing is expected, this showy garb is discarded for loose 
black trousers. The mode in which the turban is 
tied indicates the rank of its wearer. 

The women are equally fond of bright colors with 
the men, and love to adorn themselves with jewelry. 
They wear the baggy divided skirt everywhere used 
by Mohammedan women, and a skin-tight waist of 
bright color, and usually embroidered in arabesque 
designs. The jabul, a long strip of cloth sewn together 
at the ends, is draped about the body or thrown over 
the head as a protection from the sun, its end being 
held under the arm. 

Weapons are carried by all males above sixteen, 
their coats of mail, swords, lances, krisses, and other 
weapons being all of their own make, an art in which 
they are very skilful. These are often beautifully fin- 
ished, and are excellently suited to the purpose de- 
signed. Silver and gold are used to inlay the steel, 
and the hilts are made of ivory or hard polished wood, 
at times beautifully carved. The art of tempering is 
thoroughly understood. 

The men are often handsome and usuallv robust 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 437 

and active. Their complexion is of a dusky bronze, 
their eyes black and piercing, their foreheads low, the 
glossy black hair falling in waves upon the neck. 
Fierce and daring as they are, they are not lacking in 
caution, being mentally sober and self-contained, while 
quick in judgment and decision. Suspicion seems an 
element of their nature, and they are obstinate and 
vindictive in disposition and merciless in anger. 

Slavery has existed among them since the conquest 
of the land, and by the laws of Sulu not only the 
debtor, but his wife and children, become slaves of the 
creditor if he is unable to pay his debt. He can only 
free them from this fate by the sacrifice of his own life, 
through joining the jnramentados, who are sworn to 
die in killing Christians. The bloody raids of these 
devoted fanatics have been already described. 

The Moros of Mindanao hunt the savage tribes with 
murderous thirst, eager to win the coveted title of 
bagani, to obtain which the aspirant must have cut ofi 
sixty heads. This entitles him to wear a scarlet turban, 
and only a bagani can become a chief. The Mandayas 
seek to escape these murderers by building their huts 
high up among the branches of trees, whence they 
hurl stones upon their assailants. The Moros in re- 
turn try to fire their huts with burning arrows. Fail- 
ing in this, they will climb the tree with their shields 
locked together above them, and cut down the posts 
that support the hut in the tree. The captives are then 
divided among the captors, the heads of the males 
being cut off, and the women and children carried off 
as slaves. 

The oflRce of chief is hereditary among the Sulu 
Moros. On the death of a chief, the pandita, or priest, 



438 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

chants a requiem, while a gong made from hollowed 
wood is beaten by the attendants. The people, hear- 
ing this alarm sound, rush in, and stamp and shout 
while the body is sprinkled with salt. A successor is 
then chosen. 

Though the Sulu Islands were annexed to the 
Philippines and their people subdued by General 
Arolas, they paid no taxes, and the Spanish govern- 
ment found it wise to pay the sultan a pension of $2400 
yearly. In their language, the sultan is the ''Stainless 
One," and is despotic over both church and state. 
His power is hereditary in his family, an advisory 
council and ministers helping him in the toils of gov- 
ernment. His palace, a large edifice of wood, is in the 
new capital Maybun, where he lives in state. The ves- 
tibule to the throne-room is adorned with an abundant 
display of the richest flowering plants and shrubs, and 
servants flit about in gay costumes, offering betel- 
nut to every one present, from the sultanas to for- 
eign guests, all being seated on embroidered silken 
cushions scattered about the floor. There are two 
sultanates in Mindanao, both subordinate to the sultan 
of Sulu. 

In 1885, the governor-general cited the sultan to 
appear at Manila, that he might be duly invested in his 
office. He refused to go; a predecessor having obeyed 
the summons and been made prisoner. In conse- 
quence, another chief, Datto Hahm. was appointed in 
his place. The new sultan proved himself a true Moro. 
General Arolas having returned to Spain and a less 
shrewd and cautious governor taken his place, the 
latter unwisely decided to tax the Moros, and ordered 
them to come to town and pay their tribute. They 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 439 

appeared on the appointed day in considerable force, 
headed by Harun, and after some hesitation were ad- 
mitted to the town. Harun came forward, offering the 
governor a bag of pearls, then, suddenly drawing a 
barong, clove his skull to the teeth. His followers fell 
upon the soldiers with such fury that only two or three 
of them escaped. The town was razed to the ground. 
Thus it was that the Moros paid tax to Spain. 

THE WILD TRIBES. 

The wild IMalay tribes of the interior need no further 
description than we have already given them, as they 
mainly differ from the civilized natives in the greater 
primitiveness of their habits. They present the Ma- 
lay in his savage, hunting stage as the others present 
him in his civilized, agricultural stage. Each possesses 
the Malay character, though in the latter case it has 
been softened and refined by civilizing influences and 
by the effects of Christian teaching. 

The wild natives remain heathens, possessing vari- 
ous notions derived from their ancestral doctrines. In 
case of death, the Tagbanuas seek to guard the corpse 
against a mysterious, man-like creature, called balbal, 
which comes from the Moro country, moving through 
the air like a flying squirrel. It has curved nails with 
which it tears up the thatch of houses, and a long 
tongue with which it can reach down and " lick up" 
the dead body. 

The dead are judged by a gigantic deity named 
Taliakood, residing in the interior of the earth, who 
keeps a fire steadily burning. He asks the deceased 
if he has led a good or a bad life, and is answered, not 
by the individual, but by a louse on his body. If the 



440 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

report is unfavorable, the hapless individual is pitched 
into the fire and burned to ashes. If favorable, he 
passes on into rich and happy hunting grounds, where 
a house and a wife await him. Each person dies seven 
times in all, going successively deeper into the earth, 
and each time gaining a happier stage of existence. 

The more savage Mangyans appear to be destitute 
of anything that can be called religion, presenting no 
evidence of worship of any sort or of any conception 
of the supernatural. As regards ideas of a future life, 
they settle it briefly by the statement, " When a Man-, 
gyan is dead, he is dead.'" If they have any religious 
conceptions, these must be very crude and unformed. 
Yet they are not immoral. Women are faithful to 
their husbands, though the idea of modesty does not 
seem to exist, and property precious to them may be 
safely left among them without risk of its being stolen. 

THE AETAS, OR NEGRITOS. 

The Negrito aborigines differ essentially from the 
Malays in racial characters and customs. They are 
very dark in color, some as sable as negroes, are 
dwarfish in size and ugly in countenance, their feat- 
ures being coarse and ill shaped. Their hair is black 
and curly and closely matted. Mentally they are stupid 
and undeveloped, apparently incapable of improve- 
ment, and lacking in the qualities of judgment and 
aggressiveness. They go almost naked, and subsist by^ 
hunting and on the wild fruits and tubers of the forest, 
seemingly having little or no knowledge of agricul- 
ture. They seem to stand at the bottom of the human 
scale, and all attempts to instruct them have proved 
failures. 



THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES. 441 

The weapons of these forest dwarfs are a bamboo 
lance, a bow of palm-wood, and a quiver of poisoned 
arrows. In this respect they agree with the pigmy 
tribes of Africa, who also possess the art of poisoning 
their arrows. Though mentally deficient, they are 
physically alert, being remarkably fleet of foot, while 
they can climb like monkeys. 

About fifty families of Negritos usually live together, 
their life being spent in wandering, and shelter ob- 
tained by a simple erection of sloping poles and leaves 
or rude thatched huts raised on bamboo poles. Fond 
of tobacco, they obtain it by trading the wax and 
honey of wild bees with the Malays. Meat they often 
obtain in another fashion, — swooping down upon the 
valley and driving off the cattle of the natives into the 
mountain recesses. 

Unlike savages in general, they give tender care to 
the aged and show much reverence for the dead. 
Death comes to them early, their age seldom exceed- 
ing forty years. The dress of the men consists of a 
belt of bark fibres, that of the women of a sort of petti- 
coat of the same, unmarried girls wearing a collar of 
palm leaves, whose ends meet beneath their breasts. 
They are said to resist all attempts upon their chastity. 

Their marriage custom is a curious one, being a 
form of pursuit and capture. The young man whose 
advances to a girl have been favorably received by her 
parents, begins the ceremony by catching her in his 
arms. She breaks loose and runs, he in hot pursuit; 
she being several times caught and as often escaping. 
After this play of struggle and release Has been kept 
up for a time, the maid submits, and is led back in 
triumph to her home. 



442 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The father of the bride now drags the youth up a 
ladder to the floor of their hut. The mother does the 
same with the girl. The two now kneel side by side 
and the father throws over them a cocoa-nut shellful 
of water. He then bumps their heads together and 
they are considered man and wife. Their honeymoon 
is spent in the mountain depths, where they remain 
for five days and nights, finally returning to village 
life. 

A still more curious marriage custom is described 
as follows: The youth and maiden are made to climb 
two slender saplings in close propinquity. These are 
now seized by an elder of the group and drawn to- 
gether until the heads of the climbers touch each other. 
They are now considered man and wife and allowed to 
descend. 



VIL AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 

MANILA HEMR 

Prominent among the products of nature in the 
PhiHppines is the valuable fibre known as Manila 
hemp, yielded by a plant native to these islands and 
as yet never cultivated profitably elsewhere. The plant 
in question is Musa textilis, a species of plantain that 
grows wild in many of the islands, and in appearance 
closely resembles the banana. The banana is taller 
and its leaves of a lighter green; but the only other 
visible difference is in the fruit, that of the hemp plant 
being small and unfit to eat. 

This plant is known in the Philippines as the abaca. 
Like all the plantains, it is an herb, not a tree. It dies 
after once bearing flowers and fruit; but a new plant 
springs up from the root, reaching an average height 
of ten feet and an extreme height of twenty feet, with 
a diameter of from eight to twelve inches. This plant 
flourishes in hilly situations, sometimes in the thinnest 
volcanic soil, but will not grow in low, wet lands. Its 
period of growth is three years, at the end of which 
time it sends up a central flower-stem. 

It is now ready for utilization. The flower-stem is 
cut away before the fruit appears, and the leaf-stalks — 
over six feet long — are cut down and torn into strips 
five or six inches wide. These strips, known as bast, 
contain the hemp fibre, surrounded by a soft, pulpy 
substance, which must be got rid of. This is done in 

443 



444 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

a very primitive fashion; the pulp being scraped away 
with the aid of a dull knife, which is attached by a 
hinge to a block of wood. The bast is drawn between 
the knife and the block, a foot-treadle being used to 
produce the necessary pressure upon the strips. As a 
result, the pulp and juice are squeezed out and remain 
on the side of the knife, and the fibre, as it passes 
through, is wound round a stick of wood. 

Little more is necessary. The fibre is still very 
moist, more than half its weight being water. It is 
laid in the sun to dry. and left for about five hours, 
after which it is gathered into bales of about 240 
pounds weight, bound with hoops of iron or rattan, 
and is ready for shipment. 

Many attempts have been made to improve upon 
the native method of cleaning the bast, but none have 
proved successful, — some of them breaking, others 
discoloring the fibre, and the best of them being more 
expensive than the old hand process. Yet the natives 
are not the most honest of operators. They are apt 
to leave the bast exposed to rain and air, which makes 
it more easily cleaned, but weakens and discolors the 
fibre. They also often use a toothed knife, which fails 
to remove all the pulp and wounds and discolors the 
fibre. Properly prepared Manila hemp should be per- 
fectly clean and white, but, as it is sold by weight, the 
dishonest native seeks to leave some of the pulp so as 
to make it weigh heavier, without taking thought of 
its loss in value. 

Hemp-growing is the least troublesome form of 
Philippine agriculture, and gives the best returns in 
comparison with expense. Considerable capital is 
needed in starting a plantation, as three or more years 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 445 

pass before any profit can be made; after that the 
planter can count on an annual yield. There is little 
risk to be feared, a forest wind-break being left to 
protect the plants from hurricanes, while they are free 
from attacks by locusts and most other insects. Their 
moist stems are an assurance against fire, no plough- 
ing is needed, no expensive machinery is required; it 
is only necessary to loosen the earth and keep down 
weeds. An occasional drought is the only enemy the 
planter need fear. 

Yet he suffers severely through the negligence of 
his native help, the waste being enormous. In some 
cases the leaf-stalks are cut before they are mature; 
in others they are left until they rot on the plant. 
Through this and other forms of carelessness full thirty 
per cent, of the fibre is lost. 

Work on an estate is done on the co-operative plan, 
the workmen not being paid in money, but receiving 
half the fibre they clean. They work in couples, and 
make good wages even for a poor quality of hemp. In 
addition to the large planters, many natives produce 
hemp fibre in a small way, selling it to the Chinese 
dealers. Chinamen also often lease the native lands 
for a term of years, work them exhaustively, produce 
poor fibre, and return the plantation ruined for the 
time being. As a result, the Chinese product is criti- 
cally inspected before purchase. 

The islands of Leyte and Marinduque and certain 
districts in Luzon yield the finest quality of hemp. 
The province of Albay, in southeast Luzon, perhaps 
stands first in quality and quantity, its annual yield 
averaging about 20,000 tons. The demand for hemp 
has grown up principally since 1825; before that date 



446 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the yield was insignificant. In 1840 it reached about 
8500 tons, in 1880 about 50,000, and is now perhaps 
double this quantity. 

Manila hemp is used principally in the manufacture 
of sail-cloth, mats, and cordage. The stout brown 
wrapping-paper known as Manila paper is made from 
old rope. A large percentage of the fibre goes to the 
United States, most of the remainder to Great Britain. 
In Paris, carpets, tapestry, hammocks, and even bon- 
nets are made out of this valuable material. 

A very fine hemp fibre is obtained in small quantities 
from the edges of the leaf-stalks or petioles, from which 
a fine, silky material, suitable for dress goods, is 
woven. On one island this is mixed with the pifia 
fibre and the fabric sold to foreigners for pure piiia, 
whose exquisite softness it lacks. 

During the last decade the United States is said to 
have received fully forty per cent, of all the hemp fibre 
produced; a single firm in Boston, in the ten years 
previous to 1898, buying 79,000 tons of hemp, for 
which they paid an average price of three cents a 
pound in the Manila market. The total export to the 
United States during this period was 914,100 tons. 
This quantity is capable of being greatly increased. 

SUGAR. 

The poorest sugar in the world comes from the 
Philippine Islands, though the best might be produced 
with careful culture and manufacture. The yield is 
large, but the whole process is slovenly in the extreme, 
and the sugar produced is coarse in grain and inferior 
in quality. The culture of the cane extends to some 
extent through the whole archipelago, but is princi- 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 447 

pally confined to the islands of Negros, Panay, Luzon, 
and Cebu, — the yellow variety beings grown in Luzon, 
the purple in the southern islands. The quantity 
yielded for export, after the demands of the islands are 
satisfied, is about 175,000 tons annually, or about one- 
sixth the output of Cuba in prosperous times. 

Negros, an island of about the size of Porto Rico, 
possesses the finest region for sugar-cane. The cul- 
ture began there about 1850, and the yield for export 
is now about 80,000 tons per annum, though not more 
than half its area is cultivated. Its sugar is sent to 
Iloilo for shipment abroad. 

The inferior quality of Philippine sugar is due to the 
conservatism of the natives, who cling to primitive 
methods, the mills employed being as antiquated as 
those used in Europe in the thirteenth century. They 
have rollers of wood or stone, which are turned by 
buffalo- or ox-power, and fitted with wooden teeth to 
break and crush the cane. As a result, only about 
forty per cent, of the juice is extracted. This is boiled 
in iron pans, yielding a black, pasty mass. 

No other colony under European control is so 
primitive in its methods, many of the sugar lands being 
held by the natives, who do not care to change from 
the system first taught them. The province of Ba- 
tangas, in Luzon, is the most backward. In those of 
Pampanga, Bulacan, and Laguna the natives own most 
of the lands, but here many small steam-mills have 
been introduced. In Negros and Panay, where the 
culture is much more recent, improved methods have 
been adopted. Cebu possesses many of the old cattle- 
mills, though some estates have adopted modern 
methods. According to the latest available statistics, 



448 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the islands contain 5920 cattle-, 239 steam-, and 35 
water-mills, with only two vacuum-pan works. 

In the native manufacture, the sugar, after being 
brought to the proper density by boiling in open pans, 
is put into pilons, which are placed over pots, into 
which the molasses drains slowly and imperfectly. 
The pilon is a conical earthen jar, holding about 133 
pounds of sugar, the molasses draining through a 
straw filter in a hole in its bottom. It rests on an 
earthen crock holding twelve quarts. 

After the drainage is completed, the pilons are 
emptied at farderias, or drying-grounds; the sugar, 
varying in hue from light at top to dark at bottom, 
is cut up and broken and left to dry, and the product 
is then mixed to obtain sugar of uniform color. The 
dry sugar shipped from Manila to the United States 
and England is almost all prepared in this way. 

The sugar of Batangas province, the worst produced 
anywhere upon the earth, is prepared for market in 
the following manner. The juice expressed in the 
cattle-mills is boiled in iron pans over a trench in 
the ground, the sugar and other solid matter com- 
bining into a black, pasty mass of repugnant appear- 
ance. This is taken from the pans and thrown into 
the corner of a shed, a mud wall being built before the 
heap as it grows in depth. This wall is an essential 
part of the process, for when the sugar is taken from 
the shed much of the mud of the wall is mixed with it 
to add to its weight. This delectable compound forms 
the Taal sugar of commerce, the town of Taal being 
the mercantile centre of the province. 

The sugar, packed in mat bags, is carted to the 
coast, the molasses dripping from the carts into the 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 449 

road as they lurch onward. The bags reach Manila in 
a dilapidated state, and the sugar is there packed into 
new bags and loaded on board vessel. On reaching 
Europe, the bags are frequently found to be torn to 
pieces and the sugar mixed into a solid mass, which 
needs to be dug out of the hold of the vessel with pick 
and shovel. The loss is often as much as ten or twelve 
per cent., which is borne by the several shippers in 
proportion to their consignment. Near Taal there are 
many steam-mills and two vacuum-pans and centrifu- 
gal mills; yet the natives pay no heed to the example. 

In Negros, Cebu, and the Iloilo province of Panay 
the juice is boiled to a certain density, and the sugar 
emptied into wooden trays and beaten until it has a 
yellow color. This forms the '' Superior de Iloilo." It 
is then put in bags and exported without farther prepa- 
ration. It does not drip molasses like that of Taal, 
and loses little in weight. 

The sugar plantations are generally sniall, there be- 
ing less than a dozen in the country with an annual 
yield of more than 1000 tons of raw sugar. The lack 
of transportation greatly checks production, and there 
is abundant opportunity for capital and enterprise to 
increase very greatly the quantity and quality of 
Philippine sugar. 

Until 1890 the United States imported annually from 
50,000 to 150,000 tons of Manila sugar. Much of the 
product now, however, finds a nearer market, China 
and Japan having become large consumers, and in 
1898 the United States received only about 37,000 
tons. There is an extensive refinery in Hong-Kong 
which takes a large supply. 

29 



450 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

TOBACCO, 

The tobacco plant was introduced into the PhiHp- 
pines by missionaries from Mexico, and has developed 
into one of the most important crops of the islands. 
From 1 78 1 to the end of 1882 Spain maintained a 
monopoly over this product, during which period, in 
certain districts in northern Luzon, the natives were 
virtual slaves of the leaf, each family being obliged to 
produce a certain quantity of leaf annually, failure to 
do so being followed by severe treatment. If an In- 
dian was caught smoking a cigar made from his own 
leaf, he was arrested and fined; the fine and costs 
amounting to about eight dollars for a cigar and two 
dollars for a cigarette. 

Earnest efforts were made to confine the growth of 
tobacco to certain selected districts; yet, despite all 
precautions, much tobacco was grown in remote and 
concealed localities, and those who knew the art could 
always buy a good cigar for about one-fourth the price 
paid in a Manila shop. The attempts to break up this 
illicit growth and smuggling led to many stubborn 
encounters between the natives and the revenue offi- 
cers, and the difficulty grew until it led in the end to 
the abolishment of the monopoly. 

Since 1882 the growth of tobacco has been greatly 
stimulated. The best leaf comes from the districts of 
Cagayan and Isabella, in northern Luzon, these yield- 
ing from 60,000 to 100,000 tons annually. Tobacco is 
also grown in other parts of Luzon and in Cebu and 
Panay, there being in all about 60,000 acres under cul- 
tivation. The methods of culture and curing do not 
differ from those in Cuba, and need not be again de- 
scribed. 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 451 

Smoking is universal in the Philippines, by natives 
and foreigners alike; even the savage Negritos have 
acquired a taste for the foreign leaf, their smoking 
frequently performed with the lighted end of the cigar 
in the mouth. Everywhere the fumigation goes on, — 
except in church. Women smoke as freely as men; 
Spanish women of wealth and fashion as freely as the 
wives of the natives. Cigars and cigarettes are sold 
in the remotest hamlets of the islands as well as in the 
largest cities, and to all classes of the population, from 
savage to governor; smoking being the absorbing 
passion of the Filipinos of all grades and degrees. 

There are various views as to the quality of the 
Philippine leaf. Old residents believe their own to- 
bacco unequalled in quality. Foreigners are sure to 
prefer the Cuban cigar, of Vuelta Abajo origin, and 
millions of '' Havana" cigars are sold in Manila, every 
fibre of whose leaf grew in Philippine soil. About 
equal quantities of Cuban and Manila cigars are pro- 
duced, — unlike in size and shape but alike in quality 
and flavor, — the difference being far more a matter of 
opinion than of fact. 

RICE. 

The product of the rice fields is that upon which the 
very existence of the Filipinos depends, rice being the 
universal aliment of the people, the food substance to 
which all others are supplementary. Rice, a plant 
native to the East, has from immemorial time been the 
leading food-product of Eastern Asia, and has in the 
recent period extended its range widely round the 
tropics. It is grown in every island of the Philippines; 
rice culture being the branch of agricultural industry 



452 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

which the people of these islands, as of China and 
Japan, best understand and most enjoy. 

Rice in the husk is called paddy, in the Philippines 
as in India, and in speaking of its cultivation this word 
is very commonly used. More than twenty varieties 
of this grain are grown, they being divided into the 
two groups of paga, or highland rice, and macan, or 
lowland rice. The former needs no irrigation, and is 
sown broadcast on the hills, needing only to be hoed 
and weeded. Sown at the end of May, it ripens in 
from three to four and a half months, and is harvested 
ear by ear. 

The macan rice is of much the finer quality, the 
white-grained variety being the most esteemed. It 
yields twice the crop of paga rice, but only one crop 
can be grown annually, while three crops of the latter 
may be raised. Macan rice is sown in June, in a plot 
saturated with water until it is a mass of mud. After 
six weeks the plants are pulled up by the roots and 
transplanted in the fields, which are kept flooded 
during the growth of the plant. The rains are usu- 
ally depended upon for irrigation, but where regular 
irrigation is resorted to two crops can be grown an- 
nually, with a much larger percentage of yield. 

When ripe each ear is cut separately, and the paddy 
is heaped into stacks. After six weeks the threshing 
takes place, either by the use of the flail, by treading, 
or by driving ponies over the paddy heaps. No ma- 
chines are in use for husking the grain, this being 
generally performed in a large mortar, in which it is 
beaten with a pestle. There is, however, a primitive 
wooden mill for this purpose, worked by bufifaloes, and 
steam- and water-power are being brought into use. 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 453 

The rice-growers of the Philippines have many in- 
sect enemies to contend with, one of the worst being 
the locust, in its occasional migrations. Yet the usual 
product is large, one quinon (about seven acres) of land 
yielding from 250 to 300 cavans (about ninety-six 
pounds each) of rice; which product might be greatly 
increased with proper irrigation. At present the rains 
are mainly trusted to. About 250 pounds of rice will 
serve a family of five persons for a month. 

Formerly, rice was the main crop of the Philippines, 
and was largely exported; Sual being an important 
port for its shrpment to China. Sual is now a mere 
village, and nearly half the rice consumed is imported. 
This is due to the extension of the sugar culture, whose 
larger profits have greatly reduced the growth of rice. 

COFFEE, 

The culture of cofifee was begun early in the nine- 
teenth century, in a little valley in northern Luzon. 
The plant is supposed by some to have been previously 
unknown on the island, and to have spread through 
the agency of a small wild animal, which ate the berries 
and scattered the seed. As a result it rapidly extended 
over the whole island, and many of the plants, whose 
origin is thus accounted for, are still in bearing, thou- 
sands of pounds of cofiFee-berries being gathered from 
the wild bushes. Others, however, think the plant 
indigenous. 

The culture is now scattered throughout an area of 
wide extent, and the amount of coffee produced is un- 
known. Many of the natives have a few bushes in 
their front yards, shaded by plantain-trees, and yield- 
ing perhaps four or five bushels of berries. These are 



454 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

bought by speculators to help in making up cargoes. 
The merchants of Manila give the preference to the 
coffee raised in Cavite, Laguna, and Batangas, the last- 
named province giving the greatest yield. The cofifee 
of Mindanao is sent to market without being exam^ined 
and sorted, good and bad beans being mingled. The 
natives buy this at low prices, but it has no European 
demand. 

The coffee of the Philippines has a fine aroma, not 
equal to that of the Mocha or Java, but capable of 
being improved by proper care in cultivation. This, 
however, is rarely given, there being much careless- 
ness in selecting sites, in planting, in pruning, and in 
preparing the beans for market, good and bad being 
often left together. The latter is due in a measure to 
the natives, whose house-plot coffee is poorly prepared. 

The plant, as elsewhere, is grown on high ground, 
and carefully shaded until mature; a coffee plantation 
in the Philippines presenting the same features of at- 
traction as described in those of Cuba. This is espe- 
cially the case in the vicinity of Lipa, where there are 
many coffee estates, and the planters are usually very 
careful in the culture of the plant and the preparation 
for market of the bean. The Philippine coffee, like 
that of other regions, is gathered by hand, and the fruit 
laid in heaps for a few days before washing. In this 
way the pulp is largely got rid of. The berries are 
now placed in a mortar and pounded until the clean 
beans emerge; these, packed in hemp bags, are sent 
to Manila for sale. 

The Philippine archipelago, from the extent of its 
highlands and the suitable character of much of its 
soil, is well adapted to the coffee culture, which could 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 4.55 

readily be greatly extended. The industry was hin- 
dered by the Spanish government, which laid extra 
licenses on the planting of coffee and a heavy import 
duty on the machinery which has been of late years 
introduced to aid in preparing it for market. A release 
from these exactions will give encouragement to the 
planters, and doubtless lead to a large increase in the 
crop. 

OTHER VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 

The areca palm is extensively cultivated for its fruit, 
the betel-nut, which most of the natives deem almost 
a necessity of existence. It is used to such an extent 
that Manila possesses nearly a thousand warehouses 
and shops for its sale, or for that of the buyo or siri 
leaf in which the betel is wrapped for chewdng, and the 
lime used with it. The buyo palm is largely grown for 
its leaf, which has a pungent taste, and is not used 
solely in connection with the betel-nut, but is con- 
sidered a remedy in some diseases. It is believed to be 
an antidote to snake poison when bruised and laid on 
the w^ound. 

Another palm of much economic value is the nipa, 
a swamp plant which resembles a gigantic fern. Its 
leaves are used for thatch, and the sap from its fruit- 
stalks yields a favorite wine. The juice of the sugar- 
cane is used for a similar purpose, a strong but pure 
brandy being distilled from it, to whose use the na- 
tives are much addicted. 

Though the Philippines possess all the important 
tropical fruits, no attention is paid to their culture, 
except in the case of the banana, which is kept trimmed 
and free from weeds. The guava, mango, custard- 
apple, and many other fruits grow wild on the hills 



456 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

and even within the town limits, and are gathered by 
the natives as needed. The wild mango of the Philip- 
pines is one of the most delicious of fruits, and the 
same may be said of the durian, if one can endure the 
odor of putrefying flesh emitted by its outer skin. 

The banana grows both wild and under cultivation, 
seventy-seven varieties being claimed for the islands. 
In addition to its great utility as a food-plant, it yields 
a fibre which the natives weave into cloth, and from 
which they make a coarse paper. The cacao-tree was 
early introduced from Mexico, and has long been 
grown in the orchards and gardens of the monasteries, 
the friars being famous for their chocolate. There is 
a chocolate factory at Manila for the benefit of those 
who do not care to prepare this favorite substance for 
themselves; but in the country the planters usually 
grow their own trees and have their chocolate-paste 
made at home. 

Aside from the special crops of the island, and the 
fruits which form an important part of the food pro- 
ducts, agriculture has made little progress; and one 
of our consuls makes the strong statement that there is 
not a farm in the Philippines which will compare with 
the worst in America. The culture is of the most 
primitive kind, the land being ploughed with a sharp- 
ened stick drawn by the buffalo, and the lumps broken 
by a heavy frame with long wooden teeth. Fertilizers 
are never applied. 

The natives, under Spanish regulations, could not 
own land, but simply held it subject to certain condi- 
tions of cultivation. Outside the tobacco districts — 
in which they were obliged to confine their chief atten- 
tion to the leaf — they were required to plant useful 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 457 

trees, to raise maize, wheat, rye, vegetables, cotton, 
and pepper, to grow fruit in their orchards, keep all 
kinds of suitable cattle, and have at least twelve hens, 
one cock, and a sucking pig. Should they fail in these 
conditions, the land could be confiscated in two years. 

These conditions were not well complied with; some 
of them were impossible. Maize has been grown to 
some extent; probably not over 10,000 bushels of un- 
shelled corn per year. This is mostly sold in Manila, 
boiled or roasted. Some wheat is grown in the hill 
country. Hay is unknown, animals being fed on fresh 
grass, a crisp, succulent variety grown in swampy 
fields and sold by natives in the streets. 

Cotton is produced in quantities sufficient for home 
use. It is easily and cheaply grown, and might be 
made an important article of export. Indigo plants 
grow in the greatest luxuriance, needing little labor 
in their cultivation, and returning large profits on the 
capital involved. The indigo is famous for its superior 
quality. 

We have already spoken of the products of the 
forests. Aside from the many valuable varieties of 
hard-wood lumber, there are other products to which 
passing reference may be made. Sapan-wood yields 
a rich crimson dye, which is much esteemed, though 
less permanent than that of the cochineal. The bark 
of the dita tree yields an alkaloid resembling quinine 
in its effects, though not so strong. The perfume 
called ylang-ylang is made from the flowers of a tree 
of the same name. The cocoa-palm yields the oil 
used in lighting houses and streets, for lubricating and 
cooking purposes. In many provinces the tree is 
grown for the oil alone, which is used at home or 



458 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

shipped to Europe. In the European dimate it be- 
comes solid and is made into soap and candles. There 
is a large exportation of copra, the dried meat of the 
cocoa-nut; this amounting in 1897 to 801,437 pounds. 
This goes principally to Europe, where it is used in 
soap-making. Another useful tree is the gutta-percha, 
which is abundant in some of the islands, especially in 
Mindanao. It has hitherto been little utilized, but 
might become a valuable commercial product. 

LIVE-STOCK. 

Little remains to be said concerning the domestic 
animals of the Philippines. We have already described 
the buffalo, the favorite working animal of the Philip- 
pine farmer, by whom it is almost universally em- 
ployed. Buffalo meat is valued by the natives as an 
article of food, but Europeans find it tough and rather 
tasteless. Cattle are extensively raised on some of 
the islands for beef; Masbate, for instance, being 
mainly devoted to grazing. They are of a small 
humped variety. 

Dairying is almost unknown, the Filipinos never 
eating butter or any other dairy product. As a result, 
milk is a very scarce and dear article, being used only 
in a few towns. Fresh butter and cheese are not to be 
had at any price, they never being made. The only 
butter used is a very dear article imported from Lon- 
don in bottles. Goats are raised in large numbers, 
being prized alike for their milk and their flesh. Pigs 
also are very common, being kept in every native vil- 
lage, while there are large numbers of wild ones. 

Poultry are abundant, and the artificial hatching of 
ducks is a common industry in some localities. Pa- 



AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 459 

teros, for instance, a village near Manila, seems to 
derive its name from its multitude of ducklings thus 
hatched (patos), which are seen in vast numbers along 
the banks of the Pasig. They are fed on small shell- 
fish found in abundance in the neighboring Bay Lake. 
The eggs, as laid and collected, are placed in large 
receptacles containing warm paddy husk, whose tem- 
perature is kept uniform. A canvas covering is spread 
over the heap, and one man suffices to attend to a large 
number of frames, from which the ducklings are re- 
moved as soon as hatched. They may be seen in hun- 
dreds running about in shallow bamboo baskets, wait- 
ing to be carried to the river banks. In that climate 
they need no further care. Along the Pasig almost 
every cottage with a river front possesses its patcro, 
or duckery. 



VIIL MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE* 

CIGARS. 

Of the manufactures of the PhiHppines, as in 
Cuba, tobacco stands at the head, the cigar factories 
of Manila vying with those of Havana as pubHc spec- 
tacles. Binondo, the trading centre of Manila, is the 
seat of this industry, there being twelve large cigar 
and cigarette factories, employing about ii,ooo hands, 
besides many small factories. The Compania General 
de Tabacos has a capital of $15,000,000, and employs 
nearly 10,000 hands, — 6000 on plantations and 2500 
men and 900 women in the factories. It produces an- 
nually 80,000,000 cigars, 400,000,000 cigarettes, and 
5,000,000 pounds of tobacco. There are six other 
Spanish firms, several German, Swiss, and English, 
and a number of Chinese. 

The factories present a scene of the most bustling 
activity, with their thousands of operatives, largely 
young girls. The working hours are from seven to 
twelve in the morning and from two to five in the 
afternoon. The hours of work are often followed by 
a plunge into Manila Bay, where thousands of the 
operatives may be seen disporting themselves in the 
surf, diving, tumbling, and shouting like children. 

The scene inside the factories is an interesting one, 

every stage, from the baled tobacco to the finished 

cigar, being rapidly passed through. Experts separate 

the leaf into grades of color and quality with remark- 

460 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 461 

able rapidity, and the whole series of processes may be 
seen in quick succession, till the finished article is 
packed in cedar boxes, properly labelled, and ready for 
market. Many efforts have been made to use less ex- 
pensive woods for cigar-boxes, but nothing seems to 
supply the place of cedar, which either preserves the 
aroma of the leaf or adds a flavor of its own. 

While the cigars are hand-made, the cigarettes are 
made by machines, each of which is capable of turning 
out 12,000 a day. The leaf is divided into many dif- 
ferent colors, though only five are known to the trade, 
— Maduro, Colorado maduro, Colorado, Colorado 
claro, and Claro. Of these, Spain takes the strong, 
dark brands; England takes every shade; America 
prefers the lighter colors. In 1897 the total export of 
cigars was 156,916,000, in addition to the large home 
consumption. The leaf tobacco exported amounted 
to 801,437 pounds. 

OTHER MANUFACTURES. 

Very little remains to be said about the Philippine 
manufactures. Manila possesses some industries in- 
troduced by Europeans, including a Spanish brewery, 
a German cement factory, and Swiss umbrella and hat 
factories, the latter making felt and straw hats. There 
are a number of rope-factories, worked mainly by 
hand. A cotton-mill, with £40,000 capital (English) 
and 6000 spindles, is the most recent addition to the 
productive industries. 

The natives possess few manufactures, though 
fabrics of several kinds are woven by them on simple 
hand-looms. These are made of bamboo, and are very 
numerous, about 60,000 of them being computed in 



462 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the province of Iloilo, where there is one in nearly 
every house. They are used for the manufacture of 
tissues of silk, cotton, hemp, and the exquisitely fine 
piiia, the fibre from which is obtained from the pine- 
apple leaf, and forms a thread so fine that it is neces- 
sary to protect it, by the use of a fine gauze, from even 
the agitation of the wind. 

This beautiful tissue is made most largely in the 
vicinity of Iloilo, and is sent to the capital to be em- 
broidered. It is so costly when finished that for the 
more elaborate specimens fabulous prices are paid, — 
one or two ounces of gold, for instance, for a small 
handkerchief. It forms an essential part of the dress 
of the richer natives and mestizos. 

A texture of less fineness is made from a mixture 
of abaca and pifia fibre, and a very coarse one from 
abaca. This is used for sails, rough garments, etc. 
Mats are extensively produced, some of them beauti- 
ful, being of various colors and ornamented in gold and 
silver patterns. In the Philippines all sleep on mats. 

Hats of split bamboo are largely manufactured, and 
the other native arts include furniture-making, wood- 
carving, the manufacture of wooden clogs, and the 
production of various other articles of art or necessity. 
The natives possess the art of softening and manufac- 
turing horn; produce fibre-wrought hats and cigar- 
cases of various colors, of which the white are the 
most costly and beautiful ; and work skilfully in metal, 
making chains of gold and silver of great fineness. 
The skill of the Moros in producing their highly tem- 
pered steel weapons has been already spoken of. The 
tools and implements used by the natives in manu- 
facture are all of the simplest and rudest character. 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 463 

The women have long, slender fingers, very fine and 
delicate in touch, and many of the articles produced 
by them are models of delicacy. These include the 
piiia fabrics, hats, cigarette holders, articles of em- 
broidery, and other artistic products. 

COMMERCE. 

It was with the greatest difficulty that foreign trade 
forced its way into the Philippines against Spanish 
distrust and opposition, which threw every available 
obstacle in its way. Though constant pressure from 
without gradually brought about a more liberal state 
of affairs, useless and obstructive formalities and vexa- 
tious delays continued to stand in the way of trade, 
and the development of the colony seemed an idea 
foreign to the intellect of the Spanish authorities. 

It was not until within the nineteenth century that 
foreign ships were permitted to enter the waters of 
Manila or foreign merchants to reside within its walls. 
Yet the demands of commerce in time put an end to 
this mediaeval policy, and an American firm, Russell 
& Sturgis, was admitted by favor of the governor- 
general. Others followed, and to-day there are about 
twenty British and as many German firms in Manila, 
with a number of firms of other nationalities. 

The great house of Russell & Sturgis long con- 
tinued at the head of foreign business, and was the 
mainspring of Philippine enterprise, opening up the 
sugar culture in the island of Negros, and investing a 
large sum of money in agricultural operations. It 
advanced its capital freely to the native planters, v^ho 
in return victimized the house. As a result, in 1875 
the great firm failed, to the amazement and consterna- 



464 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

tion of the people and the wrecking of business for 
several years. But the minor firms which it had 
thrown into the shade gradually took its place and 
business regained prosperity. These, now mainly 
English, German, and Spanish houses, pursue the 
same course of advancing money to the natives to aid 
them in getting out their crops. While this is accom- 
panied with considerable risk, it is justified by the large 
profits that attend success. 

In 1869 a royal decree was passed abolishing export 
duties and doing away with the severe port charges 
which had hampered trade. But various vexatious 
regulations continued, tending to drive foreign trade 
from Manila, and as late as 1886 the authorities de- 
clared foreign trade to be prejudicial to the '' material 
interests of the country." 

The conservatism and ignorance of the natives have 
also stood in the way of commercial progress. They 
could not be brought to understand that changes in 
quotations were the result of world-wide influences, 
but charged them to the caprice and avarice of the 
merchants, and often lost by withholding their goods 
to await higher quotations. They had no fixed price 
for their products, preferring the Oriental system of 
bargaining. In this they were steadily overreached by 
the shrewd Chinese dealers, with whom they usually 
came into contact. The same system was adopted 
by large mercantile houses, which seldom stated prices, 
purchasing the produce of the natives through middle- 
men familiar with their customs and knowing how to 
deal with them. 

In 1891 Spain laid a protective tariff on the Philip- 
pine trade; the result being that the bulk of the traffic 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 465 

was diverted to the home country, the Manchester 
cotton goods, which had been imported in large quan- 
tities from England, being replaced by similar goods 
of Barcelona manufacture. Iron goods and hardware 
continued to come from Germany and Switzerland, 
while American trade was principally restricted to 
flour and kerosene oil. 

The trade of the islands may be briefly summarized. 
In 1841 the total imports were valued at $3,230,000; 
the exports at $4,370,000. In 1885 the imports had 
gained the much larger figure of $19,171,468; the ex- 
ports, $24,553,686. These figures are given in the 
silver currency of the island, and would need a reduc- 
tion to accord with standard gold values. The ex- 
port duties, as reimposed in 1891 and increased in 
1896, caused a falling off in trade; while on August 
21, 1897, a decree went into effect under which an 
extraordinary customs duty of six per cent, ad valorem 
was imposed on all merchandise imports. 

For a number of years past the trade of the United 
States with the Philippines has steadily declined. The 
export trade has always been insignificant, and has of 
late years continued to fall off. The import trade has 
suffered a considerable decline, sinking from $10,268,- 
278 in 1888 to $4,383,740 in 1897. In 1896 the im- 
ports of this country from the Philippines were nearly 
confined to sugar and hemp, — sugar, $2,270,902; 
hemp, $2,499,404; other articles, $212,551; total im- 
ports, $4,982,857. The exports included mineral oil, 
$89,258; cotton goods, $9714; varnish, $1500; other 
articles, $61,169; total exports, $161,641. 

The trade of the Philippines with the several com- 
mercial countries is summarized in the following table, 

30 



466 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

the date of latest full returns for each country, at the 
time the table was made, being given : 

Exports. Imports. 

Great Britain (1897) $6,223,426 $2,063,598 

United States (1897) 4,383,740 94,597 

Japan (1897) 1,332,300 92,823 

China (1897) 56,137 97,717 

New South Wales (1897) . . . . "9,550 176,858 

France (1896) 1,990,297 389,796 

Germany (1896) 223,720 774,928 

Belgium (1896) 272,240 45,660 

India (1896) 7,755 81,156 

Straits Settlement (1896) .... 274,130 236,001 

Victoria (1896) 180 178,370 

Spain (1895) 4,819,344 4.973,589 

$19,702,819 $9,205,093 

The exports from Spain, which in 1889 aggregated 
only $890,000, in 1897 reached nearly $8,000,000, 
principally cotton fabrics. The United States ex- 
ported, in addition to the classes of goods named, 
bread-stuffs, chemicals, and iron and steel goods; and 
imported, in addition to sugar and hemp, cigars, to- 
bacco, woods, hides, shells, cofTee, and indigo. 

The decline in American influence in the Philip- 
/ pines, from its maximum previous to 1875 to its mini- 
mum at a recent date, is doubtless destined to be fol- 
lowed by an important advance as the American 
soldier is followed by the American merchant and 
planter. The enterprise of the Americans is already 
shown in the newspapers published by them, including 
" The Manila Times," " The Manila American," and 
" The American Soldier," whose advertisements show 
that the man of business has followed the soldier into 
the Philippine capital, and that American push and 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 467 

enterprise are already making themselves felt in the 
business world. This significant beginning will, no 
doubt, be quickly followed by an important commer- 
cial progress, and the resources of the islands be de- 
veloped to a degree undreamed of in the days of 
Spanish control. 

FINANCES. 

The currency of the Philippine Islands is on a silver 
basis, no gold having been in general circulation for 
more than twenty years. In fact, practically the only 
money in general circulation is the Mexican dollar of 
a date prior to 1877. In 1897 a local currency of 
$6,000,000 in silver was coined in Spain and sent to 
the islands. It was lighter in weight than the Mexican 
coins, but was quickly absorbed, owing to the scarcity 
of money. The Banco Espafiol Filipono has issued 
notes based on silver, which are now outstanding to 
the value of about $2,500,000. 

The original currency consisted of gold coins of the 
values of one dollar, two dollars, and four dollars, with 
Mexican and Spanish silver dollars, the latter having 
a limited circulation. But the recent depreciation in 
the value of silver caused so rapid an exportation of 
gold and importation of Mexican silver that the 
Spanish government sought to check this movement, 
issuing a decree in the spring of 1898 in which the im- 
portation of silver dollars of a date later than 1877 
was prohibited. This law had no long life, for the 
United States quickly succeeded Spain in the islands, 
and American coin will quickly make its way into the 
channels of Philippine commerce. After the American 
occupation of Manila, the banks were given permis- 



468 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

sion to import silver freely, with the result that the 
rates of exchange soon assumed a more stable basis. 

Under the Spanish prohibition of silver importation 
there was a large fluctuation in the value of coin, the 
amount of money needed varying in the different sea- 
sons. In the height of the sugar season there is a 
sharp increase in the demand for money. In the oflp 
season the demand is light. It was not uncommon 
under Spanish rule for silver to go to a premium of 
ten or twelve per cent., which was met by active smug- 
gling of silver into the islands, an industry practised 
largely by the rich Chinese mestizos. This illicit in- 
dustry is at an end now that the hinderance to silver 
importation is removed. 

Of the quantity of money in circulation in the Philip- 
pines there are no trustworthy estimates. In addition 
to the $6,000,000 coined in Spain in 1897 and the 
$2,500,000 of bank-note circulation, there are about 
$10,000,000 in smaller coins, and probably from 
$20,000,000 to $25,000,000 in Mexican dollars, making 
a total of approximately $40,000,000 to $45,000,000. 

The question of the future currency of the islands 
is an important one to business men, and it seems 
necessary for this to be in silver, which is the recog- 
nized currency of the Oriental countries, with which 
the Philippines largely trade. The natives will have 
nothing but silver, and will take the depreciated Mexi- 
can dollar in preference to the silver dollar of the 
United States. The soldiers in Manila, who are paid 
in gold, find it necessary to exchange it for silver at 
some of the local banks. A special coinage of silver 
dollars may prove desirable for the archipelago. 

Despite the severe taxation and other exactions to 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 469 

which the Philippine people were subjected under 
Spanish rule, the crown derived little benefit from this 
distant colony, the expenses cutting so deeply into the 
receipts that only a few hundred thousand dollars 
annually reached Spain. The islands profited no more 
than the king, very little being spent on public works. 
If a bridge was needed, the natives of the vicinity had 
to provide the money to build it. If a road was re- 
quired, the neighboring people were obliged to open 
it at their own expense. The clergy and the grasping 
officials kept the cash that was wrung from the hands 
of the merchants and laboring population; the officials 
seeming to have occupied themselves chiefly in rob- 
bing the people with one hand and the government 
with the other. In so doing they sowed a crop of 
hatred of everything Spanish, whose fruit we have 
seen in the recent insurrection. 

THE FUTURE OUTLOOK. 

At present it is impossible to predict the industrial 
future of the Philippine Islands, since it must depend 
largely on the relation of the United States to these 
islands, which is far from clearly defined. Whatever 
the political connection of the two countries may be, 
there is the strongest probability that some close rela- 
tion will exist between tlTem, and that the Philippine 
industries will be largely under the influence or con- 
trol of the United States. This country will assuredly 
be the leading factor in Philippine commerce, and will 
exert a stimulating influence upon Philippine agricul- 
ture and other interests, the capital and enterprise of 
American citizens making themselves felt widely 
throughout the archipelago. 



470 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

The important interests of the Philippines are, as 
may be seen from the description given, two in char- 
acter, agriculture and mining, — the former far from 
fully developed, the latter scarcely developed at all. 
Preliminarily to the development of these interests one 
thing is absolutely needed, — improved means of trans- 
portation. The highroad and the railroad are the 
agencies demanded alike for the 'pacification of the 
people and the advancement of their interests, and 
these, the railroad in particular, are very likely to be 
the first things to which American enterprise will 
direct itself. 

If the islands are once penetrated by railroad lines 
and supplied with good roads, not only will their agri- 
cultural industries be greatly stimulated, but their 
mining possibilities will be developed wherever any fair 
promise of profit shall declare itself. In the latter, the 
scientist needs to precede the engineer, the geology 
and mineralogy of the land to be closely observed, and 
the probable output of coal, iron, gold, and other min- 
erals to be studied and tested. 

But the present great promise of the archipelago lies 
in the direction of agriculture, whose possible results, 
under energetic and modernized methods, cannot fail 
to prove enormous in amount and highly profitable. 
One thing, however, needs to be borne strictly in 
mind. The Philippines are tropical in situation, and 
have all the defects along with the advantages of the 
tropics. While possessed of a highly fertile soil, in 
which useful plants grow luxuriantly under the stimu- 
lus of warm sunshine and frequent rains, the effect of 
their tropical climate on the human population is as 
enervating as it is stimulating to plant life. Active 



MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 471 

physical labor can scarcely be looked for in such a 
climate, and the energies of nature are likely to be 
vitiated by the lack of energy in man. 

A second element of the situation is the little which 
is needed in such a climate to support life and the 
slight exertion with which this little can be obtained. 
The Philippine natives are not likely to work ener- 
getically under their warm sun and humid atmosphere, 
when they can so readily and with so little labor obtain 
all that their simple life demands. 

Only three ways out of this difficulty present them- 
selves, and at least two of them are very doubtful. 
The one is to raise the intellectual level of the Filipino 
by education and example and increase his demands 
in accordance with the development of his intelligence. 
If he requires more, he will work more vigorously to 
obtain it. This very problematical solution of the 
problem may be contrasted with the second one, the 
free opening of the country to the Chinese, a people 
whose industry appears unchecked even under the 
most adverse conditions of nature. Yet to flood the 
country with Chinese would perhaps cause greater 
evils than it would cure, and it certainly seems a 
remedy not to be employed except as a final resort. 

The third and most promising solution of the prob- 
lem would appear to be a reduction of the amount of 
human labor by the introduction of the most ad- 
vanced modern methods and the best modern ma- 
chinery. In the most profitable of the Philippine 
industries, that of sugar production and manufacture, 
primitive methods are employed, and the output could 
be at once more than doubled, with the same or less 
labor than is now employed, by adopting the methods 



472 OUR ISLAND EMPIRE. 

in use in Cuba and Hawaii. Mechanical power can 
doubtless be applied effectively to many other of the 
agricultural products of the Philippines, and with 
the present sum of labor an output considerably 
greater in quantity and in many cases much superior 
in quality could be counted upon. 

In the question here considered, the moral element 
must enter to a far greater degree than it did under 
Spanish control. It is the duty of Americans to con- 
sider the well-being of the people first, and material 
advantage second; and only where the profit to be 
derived from the soil coincides with the just treatment 
and best interests of the Philippine natives should it 
be considered at all. Profit is a good thing to take 
into account; human happiness and liberty a better. 
Both of them will doubtless be considered in our rela- 
tions with these distant lands and people, since they 
can readily be made to harmonize if justice and the 
sentiment of human fellowship be made their com- 
bining element. r~^f)r\ 

But speculative suggestions of this kind are of little 
practical value. The future of the Philippines is a 
problem which only time can solve. All that can posi- 
tively be said is that these tropical islands possess 
enormous productive capabilities, which need only in- 
telligence and energy to develop. Under American 
influence and control such a development can scarcely 
fail to take place, — at least to some considerable de- 
gree, — and these fertile islands to take a prominent 
place in the circle of the producing countries of the 
earth. 



INDEX. 



• • 



A. 

Abaca, the, 443, 46a. 

Acacia, the, 254. 

Adjuntas, 203. 

Aetas, the, 393, 440. 

Agno River, 349. 

Agouti, the, 38, 183. 

Agriculture, 124, i6o, 161, 299, 314, 

443. 470. 

Aguadilla, 176, 201. 

Aguinaldo, General, 330, 331. 

Aibonito, 169, 178, 203. 

Alameda de Paula, 73. 

Albay, 349 ; hemp of, 445. 

Albemarle, Lord, 9. 

Algaroba tree, 256, 

Alluvial deposits, 27. 

American commerce, 153-156, 221, 
318. 465- 

American influence in the Philip- 
pines, 466. 

American mining companies, 43. 

American troops at Havana, 9. 

Americans in Hawaii, 297. 

Amusements, 120. 

Anda, Simon de, 329. 

Animals, domestic, 27 ; of Cuba, 
38 ; of Porto Rico, 183 ; of 
Hawaii, 261 ; of the Philippines, 
362. 

Annexation of Hawaii, 236. 

Aparri, 349, 414. 

Apo, Mount, 337, 341. 



Apple forest, 256. 

Aqueducts, 76, 301-303. 

Area of Cuba, 16 ; of Porto Rico, 

171 ; of Hawaiian Islands, 238 ; 

of Philippine Islands, 334. 
Areca palm, 361 ; use of, 426, 455. 
Arecibo, 176, 201. 
Arolas, General, 413, 438. 
Arrow-root, 311. 
Arroyo, 177, 202. 
Artemisia, 91. 
Artesian wells, 303. 
Asphaltum, Cuban, 45. 
Ateneo Municipal, 398. 
Avocado pear, 257. 
Awa beverage, 260. 



Bacolod, 413, 

Bagani, the, 437. 

Bahia Honda, 83. 

Balabac Island, 336. 

Bamboo, the, 312 ; uses of. 359. 

Banana, the, 35, 162, 255, 310, 361, 

455. 456. 
Banes, 82. 
Banks, Cuban, 158 ; Porto Rican, 

223; Hawaiian, 280; Philippine, 

467. 
Baracoa, 8, 82; anvil of, 19. 
Basilan Island, 336, 349. 
Batabano, 91 ; sponges of, 148. 
Batangas, sugar of, 448. 
Bathing facilities, 74, 102. 
473 



474 



INDEX. 



Bathing, Hawaiian, 289; Philip- 
pine, 421, 425. 

Baths of Havana, 74. 

Bats, Cuban, 39; Phihppine, 364. 

Bay of Guantanamo, 87. 

Bay of Havana, 64. 

Bay of Santiago, 83, 86. 

Bayamo, 93. 

Beans, Cuban, 35. 

Beef, curing of, 145. 

Beer, 206, 226. 

Bees, Cuban, 40, 147; Porto Rican, 
218 ; Philippine, 366. 

Beggars, Cuban, iii, 

Bejucal, 92, 

Bellemar, cave of, 78, 79 

Bells of Havana, 96. 

Bemba, 92. 

Beriberi, 355. 

Betel-nut, 426. 455. 

Binondo, 402 ; activity of, 403 ; 
dwellings of, 403. 

Birds, Cuban, 39; Porto Rican, 
184; Hawaiian, 261, 265 ; Leyson 
Island, 315 ; Philippine, 364, 

Bird's nest, edible, 365. 

Bird's-nest fern, 255. 

Bishop's Garden, 74. 

Boats on Pasig River, 399. 

Bohol Island, 335, 345. 

Bombon Lake, 340, 343. 

Bone-black, 141. 

Books, loo. 

Borneo Island, 336, 

Botanical Gardens, 68. 

Bowring, Sir John, 421, 430. 

Boys and girls, 103. 

Bread-fruit, 255. 

Breakfast, Cuban, 105. 

Bricks. 226. 

British in Hawaii, 233. 

British rovers, 328. 



British take Manila, 328. 
Buffalo, Philippine, 362, 363, 458. 
Buildings of Havana, 66, 69-75, 
Bull-ring in Cuba, 64, 113; in the 

Philippines, 428. 
Bulusan volcano, 340. 
Burias Island, 335. 
Busuanga Island, 336, 
Butter, 106, 458. 
Buyo palm, 455. 

c 

Cabafia fortress, 62. 

Cabanas, 83. 

Cabeza de Barangay, 374. 

Cables, submarine, 56. 

Cabo Rojo, 176, 202. 

Cacao-tree, 35, 131, 215. 361, 456. 

Cafes, Havana, 75, 100. 

Cafetales, 26. 

Cagayan River, 342, 349. 

Cagayan tobacco, 450. 

Caibarien, 81 ; sponges of, 148. 

Calamianes Islands, 335, 

Calapan, 414. 

Calcareous deposits, 20. 

Calzades, the, 54, 

Camaguey, 51, 93. 

Campo de Marte, 73. 

Canarreos Islands, 24. 

Candelaria, 91. 

Candle-nut-tree, 253. 

Candles, 226, 

Canes, 361. 

Caparra, 165. 

Cape Cruz, 20. 

Cape Maisi, 20. 

Cape San Antonio, 20. 

Capiz, 414. 

Captain-general, 11, 49. 

Caraballos Mountains, 337, 342. 

Carabao, the, 362. 



INDEX. 



475 



Cardenas, 80. 

Cardenas Bay asphaltum, 45. 

Card-game, Philippine, 429. 

Carnival week, 114. 

Carob-tree, 256. 

Carriage-making, 151. 

Casino, Havana, 72. 

Cassava, the, 34. 

Castillo de la Fucrza, 63. 

Castillo de la Punta, 62. 

Cat, wild, 40. 

Cathedral of Havana, 70, 84 ; of 

Santiago, 84 ; of Manila, 401. 
Cattle of Cuba, 145, 161 ; of Porto 

Rico, 217; of Hawaii, 263; of 

the Philippines, 364, 458. 
Cattle ranges, 144 ; farms, 144. 
Cattle, wild, 263, 313. 
Cauto River, 21. 
Cave of Bellemar, 78, 79. 
Caverns, Cuban, 20, 22, 23. 
Caves of Baracoa, 83 ; of Porto 

Rico, 178. 
Cavite, 347, 407, 
Cayey, 203. 
Cebu, 323, 348, 411 ; churches of, 

412; history, 412; commerce, 

412. 
Cebu Island, 335 ; deforestation of, 

345. 356; tobacco of, 450. 
Ceiba tree, 33. 
Celebes Sea, 334, 336. 
Census of Cuba, 10 ; of Porto Rico, 

192,212; of Hawaii. 268, 271. 
Children in Havana 103. 
Chimneys, lack of, 99. 
Chinese in Cuba, no: in Hawaii, 

280, 295; in the Philippines, 325, 

329, 384, 471 ; massacres of, 325, 

327 ; relations to native women, 

385 ; mestizos, 385 ; shopkeepers, 

386 ; hemp raisers, 445. 



Chocolate, 131, 456. 

Cholera in the Philippines, 354. 

Christianity in Hawaii, 231 ; in the 
Philippines, 376, 379. 

Church of Santo Nino, 411. 

Churches of Havana, 72 ; attend- 
ance at, 112; of Hawaii, 271. 

Cienfuegos, 89 ; buildings of, 90. 

Cigar cases, 462. 

Cigar manufacture, 149-151, 450, 
460, 

Cigars, Cuban, 149 ; export of, 150; 
grades of, 150; Philippine, 450, 
460, 461. 

Cinco Villas. Los, 50, 

Cities of Cuba, 62-95 1 o* Porto 
Rico, 194; of Hawaii, 278; of 
the Philippines, 399-415. 

Citizenship in Hawaii, 266, 

Clarifiers, sugar, 141. 

Climate of Cuba, 28 ; of Porto 
Rico, 178 ; of Hawaii, 248 ; of 
the Philippines, 349. 

Cloak, Hawaiian feather, 261. 

Cloth, Hawaiian, 260. 

Coal in Cuba, 44; in the Philip- 
pines, 371. 

Coamo, 202. 

Coast of Cuba, 16, 25 ; of Porto 
Rico, 171, 177. 

Coast trade, Cuban, 56 ; Porto 
Rican, 189 ; Hawaiian, 275. 

Coastal islands, Cuban, 23. 

Cock-fighting, Cuban, 44, 113; 
Philippine, 429. 

Cocoa-nut palm, 35, 131, 182, 254; 
uses of, 360 ; oil, 457. 

Coffee, 10, 37, 105, 107; gathering, 
128; preparing for market, 128- 
130; grades of, 130; wild, 257. 
453; Hawaiian, 306, 307; Phil- 
ippine. 453-455. 



476 



INDEX. 



Coffee culture, 124-131, 160, 213, 
299, 307-309, 454. 

Coffee lands, 308. 

Coffee plantations, 126, 

Cogon grass, 356. 

Colon, 92. 

Colors of houses, 63, 66. 

Columbus discovers Cuba, 7 ; tomb 
of, 71. 

Commerce of Cuba, 151-156; of 
Porto Rico, 219-223 ; of Hawaii, 
237, 275, 318, 327 ; of the Philip- 
pines, 463-466. 

Company of the Philippines, 330, 

Compliment, language of, 104. 

Concentration policy in Cuba, 12. 

Consolacion del Sur, 91. 

Constitution of Hawaii, 234. 

Contract labor, 296. 

Convicts, Porto Rican, 166. 

Cook, Captain, 228, 286. 

Cooking, 105, 293. 

Coolie labor, 60, no. 

Copper, 42, 87, 185, 369. 

Copper Mountains, 18. 

Copra, 458. 

Coral islands, 23 ; growth of, 27. 

Coral reefs, 177, 239, 337. 

Cortes, expedition of, 324. 

Cortes, representation in, 49. 

Cotton, 38, 217, 457. 

Cotton goods in Philippines, 465. 

Countrymen, habits of, 116. 

Courts, Cuban, 49; Porto Rican, 
i86; Philippine, 375. 

Crocodile, 365. 

Crops, Cuban farm, 117, 118. 

Cuba, names of, 7; invasions, 9; 
population, 10; oppression, 11; 
situation, 15 ; extent, 15 ; coast 
and islands, 16, 23 ; mountains, 
17 ; commercial advantage of 



position, 17 ; forests, 25, 32 ; 
chmates, 28 ; seasons, 28 ; rains, 
28, 30; diseases, 29; food plants 
and fruits, 34 ; animals, 38, 41 ; 
metals and minerals, 41 ; re- 
forms, 48 ; divisions, 48, 50 ; 
government, 49 ; slavery, 51 ; re- 
ligion, 52 ; roads, 53 ; railways, 
54 ; steamships, 56 ; telegraphs, 
57; population, 57-60; educa- 
tion, 60; chief towns, 62-95: 
agriculture, 124; manufactures, 
149; commerce, 151; foreign 
trade, 151 ; restrictions on trade, 
152; value of estates, 156; debt, 
157; currency, 157; revenue, 
157 ; future of, 159 ; public im- 
provements, 162 ; advantage to 
United States, 164, 

Cuban hatred of the Spaniards, 11. 

Cuban landscapes, 26 ; atmosphere, 
30; waters, 30; representation, 
49; women, 97; habits of men, 
100 ; area of cultivated soil, 142 ; 
pasture lands, 144. 

Cubitas Mountains, 19, 93 ; iron 
deposits of, 43. 

Cuchillas, the, 18. 

Culebra Island, 175. 

Cultivated plants, 34. 

Currency of Cuba, 157; of Porto 
Rico, 223 ; of Hawaii, 321 ; of 
the Philippines, 467. 

Custard-apple, 36. 

a 

Dagupan, 382. 

Dances, Hawaiian, 292; Philippine, 

431- 
Debt of Cuba, 157. 
Deer in Cuba, 38; in Hawaii, 264; 

in the Philippines, 364. 



INDEX. 



477 



Departments of Porto Rico, i86. 
Depopulation of Hawaii, 267. 
De Soto, Fernando, 8. 
Dewey, Admiral, 331, 407. 
Diamond Head, 282. 
Diana Key asphaltum, 45. 
Dinner, Cuban, 106. 
Diseases of Cuba, 29, 163 ; of 

Porto Rico, 179 ; of Hawaii, 251 ; 

of the Philippines, 352. 
Districts, Cuban judicial, 48. 
Dita alkaloid, 457. 
Dogs, wild, 40, 183, 264 ; edible, 

261, 263, 293, 
Dole, Sanford B., 235. 
Dramas, Philippine, 432. 
Dress, Cuban, 98, ii8, 119; Porto 

Rican, 205 : Hawaiian, 288 ; 

Philippine, 426. 
Drinking in Cuba, 85, 100; in 

Porto Rico. 206. 
Drinks, Cuban, 106, 107. 
Drunkenness in Hawaii, 232, 261. 
Dry season, Cuban, 28 ; Philippine, 

350- 

Duck hatching, artificial, 459. 

Dumaguete, 413. 

Durian, the, 362, 455. 

Dutch fleet at Manila, 328. 

Dwellings of Havana, 66 ; of coun- 
try, 119; of San Juan, 197; of 
Honolulu, 281 ; of Manila, 403 ; 
of Philippine natives, 423. 

E. 

Earthquakes in Cuba, 20; in the 
Philippines, 326, 341. 

Ecclesiastical division of Cuba, 50. 

Edible roots, 362 ; bird's-nest, 365. 

Education in Cuba, 60; in Porto 
Rico, 192; in Hawaii, 231, 270, 
in the Philippines, 396-398. 



Eggers, Baron, 181. 

El Caney, 87. 

El Cerro, 74. 

Electric railways, 163. 

Elevation of land, 337. 

Engineer, sugar plantation, 140. 

Estate, Cuban, 121-123. 

Eucalyptus, 256. 

Ewa, 302, 305. 

Execution of prisoners, 402, 

Exotic plants in Hawaii, 310, 

Export duties, 454. 

Exports of Cuba, 153-155 ; of 
Porto Rico, 219-221 ; of Hawaii, 
318 ; of the Philippines, 465. 



Fajardo, 176, 202. 

Fan in Cuba, the, 97. 

Farm crops, 212. 

Farmers, 190. 

Farming, 456. 

Farms, cultivation of, 116; clear- 
ing, 356. 

Feast days, 431, 

Feasts, Hawaiian, 263, 294, 

Feather cloaks and fans, 264. 

Ferdinand of Spain, decree of, 10. 

Fertile districts of Cuba, 21. 

Filipinos, character of, 386, 416 ; 
demeanor, 417; philosophy, 418, 
422 ; home-life, 419 ; supersti- 
tions, 420 ; courage, 420 ; clean- 
liness, 421 ; litigation, 422 ; love 
of music, 423 ; progress of, 470. 

Filipinas Islas, 324. 

Finances, Cuban, 156; Porto 
Rican, 167; Hawaiian, 321; 
Philippine, 467. 

Fireflies, Cuban, 40; Philippine, 
366. 



478 



INDEX. 



Fish-market, Havana, 75; Hono- 
lulu, 280, 
Fishes, Cuban, 40; Porto Rican, 

184; Hawaiian, 262; Philippine, 

366. 
Fishing industry, Cuban, 148. 
Flora, Cuban, 32-38; Philippine, 

357. 
Flowering plants, Cuban, 37. 
Food in Cuba, 105, 120; in Porto 

Rico, 206 ; in Hawaii, 280, 293 ; 

in the Philippines, 425. 
Food plants, 34, 216. 
Foreman, John, 378. 
Forest, a typical Hawaiian, 254. 
Forests, Cuban, 21, 25, 26, 37; 

Porto Rican, 172, 181, 211; 

Hawaiian, 253, 258; Philippine, 

346. 356-359- 
Fortifications of Havana, 8, 62; 

of San Juan, 195. 
Fossil animals, 26. 
Fountain of India, 73. 
Freemasonry in Cuba, 104; in 

Hawaii, 280. 
French interference in Hawaii, 232. 
Friars of the Philippines, 327, 376 ; 

character of, 377; abuses, 378; 

hated by natives, 330, 379; con- 
trol of education, 397. 
Fruits, Cuban, 35, 161, 162; Porto 

Rican, 216; Hawaiian, 255 257, 

311; Philippine, 361, 445, 



Gaddanes, the, 395. 

Galleons, Spanish trade, 327. 

Gambling in Cuba, loi, 112; for- 
bidden in Santiago, 113; in the 
Philippines, 428, 

Game in Cuba, 147. 



Gardens of Havana, 68, 74; of 

Honolulu, 281. 
Geography of Cuba, 15 ; of Porto 

Rico, 171 ; of Hawaii, 237 ; of 

the Philippines, 334. 
Geology of Cuba, 26; of Porto 

Rico, 177; of Hawaii, 239; of 

the Philippines, 337. 
Gibara, 82. 

Gibaros of Porto Rico, the, 190, 191. 
Goats, 364, 458. 
Gobernadorcillo, the 373. 
Gold in Cuba, 41 ; in Porto Rico, 

184 ; in the Philippines, 368. 
Government, Cuban, 48-50; Porto 

Rican, 168, 186; Hawaiian, 266; 

Philippine, 373. 
Government lands in Hawaii, 309. 
Governor-general, 10, 49, 373, 401. 
Grazing plains, Cuban, 164; Porto 

Rican, 210; Hawaiian, 309, 312 ; 

Philippine, 346. 
Guana, 92. 
Guanabacoa, 44, 102 ; springs of. 

46. 
Guanajay, 92. 
Guanica, 176, 
Guaniguanico Islands, 24. 
Guano, Leyson Island, 315, 
Guantanamo, 87. 
Guava, the, 35, 255, 361. 
Guayama, 177, 202. 
Guimaras Island, 335, 348, 411. 
Gutta-percha, 458. 
Gypsum, 372. 

H. 

Halcon, Mount, 337, 346. 
Haleakala volcano, 242. 
Half-breeds, Philippine, 384, 
Harbor of Cienfuegos, 90; oi 
Havana, 62, 151. 



INDEX. 



479 



Harbors, Cuban, i6, 151 ; Porto 
Rican, 175; Hawaiian, 247; 
Philippine, 347. 

Hard-wood timber, 32, 182, 357- 

359- 

Harness-making, 151. 

Hats, bamboo, 462. 

Havana, settlement of, 8 ; captures, 
8, 9 ; temperature, 28 ; situation, 
62, 63 ; defence, 62, 63 ; bay, 64; 
suburbs, 64, 65 ; population, 65 ; 
streets, 65-68, 74. I'^S ; odors, 65, 
67 ; old town, 65 ; new town, 
66; houses, 67, 74; noises, 67, 
96 ; parks and gardens, 68, 74 ; 
prison, 69; prado, 69; theatres, 
69, 71 ; churches, 70, 72 ; libra- 
ries, 73 ; El Cerro Avenue, 74 ; 
sea-baths, 75, 102 ; markets, 75 ; 
water supply, 76 ; bells of, 96 ; 
street scenes, 108, 109; stores, 
109 ; harbor, 151 ; shipping, 152. 

Havana cigars, 150, 152. 

Hawaii, situation of, 237; western 
side, 253 ; eastern side, 253 ; 
plants, 253 ; animals, 261 ; gov- 
ernment, 266; population, 266; 
education, 270; religion, 271; 
roads and railways, 273 ; soil, 
301, 307, 309. 

Hawaiian Electric and Cold Stor- 
age Company, 317. 

Hawaiian government, 228, 233; 
independence, 233 ; legislature, 

234 ; annexation, 235 ; republic, 

235 ; area, 238 ; names and posi- 
tions of islands, 238 ; geology, 
239 ; mountains, 239, 240 ; vol- 
canoes, 241 ; plains, 245 ; rivers, 
247 ; harbors, 247 ; storms, 250 ; 
rainfall, 250 ; horsemanship, 264 ; 
public lands, 309; herdsmen. 



313; industries, 317; debt, 321 ; 
revenue, 321. 

Hawaiians, race and character of, 
287 ; dress, 288 ; immorality, 288 ; 
daring, 289; surf-swimming, 289- 
291 ; boating, 291 ; dancing, 292 ; 
industries, 292 ; language, 292 ; 
dwellings and food, 293; feasts, 
294 ; decrease of, 294. 

Healthfulness of Hawaii, 252. 

Health resorts, 94. 

Hemp, Manila. 443 ; culture, 444 ; 
use of, 445. 

Herdsmen, Hawaiian, 313. 

Hibiscus, the, 254. 

High and low life, mingling of, 
108. 

Highlands, Cuban, 17. 

Hilo, 246, 248, 251, 254; aspect of, 
283 ; vegetation, 284 ; Americans 
in, 286. 

History, Cuban, 7-14 ; Porto 
Rican, 165-170; Hawaiian, 228- 
236 ; Philippine, 323-333. 

Hogs, 145, 218, 261, 263. 

Holguin, 82, 93, 94. 

Homesteads, Hawaiian, 309, 

Honey, 147, 218, 366. 

Honolulu, 229. 245, 247, 249 ; dis- 
tances from, 237; hills back of, 
253 ; water supply, 276 ; aspect 
of, 278 ; growth of, 279 ; pub- 
lic buildings, 279; streets, 280; 
markets, 280; vegetation, 281; 
dwellings, 282 ; scenery, 282, 

Honolulu Iron-Works. 317. 

Horses, Cuban, 118, 145; gait of, 
146; endurance of. 146; treat- 
ment of, 146 ; Porto Rican, 217 ; 
Hawaiian, 264, 289; Philippine, 
364 ; in Manila, 408. 

Hospital methods in Cuba, 30. 



48o 



INDEX. 



Hospitality in Cuba, 103 ; in the 
Philippines, 420. 

Hospitals in Havana, 72. 

Hotel fare, 105. 

Hotels of Havana, 75, 104; of 
Matanzas, 79. 

Hot springs, 46, 341, 371, 415. 

Houses, Cuban, 66 ; colors of, 67 ; 
furniture, 98, 99; lack of privacy 
in, 99 ; Hawaiian, 293 ; Philip- 
pine, 403, 404, 423, 424. 

Humacoa, 176, 202. 

Hurricanes in Cuba, 29. 



Idolatry abolished in Hawaii, 231. 

Ignorance, 121. 

Igorrotes, the, 395. 

Iguana, the 183. 

Iligan, 414. 

Ilocanos, the, 388. 

Iloilo, 345 ; harbor of, 347, 410. 

Immorality, Hawaiian, 232. 

Imports, Cuban, 156; Porto Rican, 
220, 226; Hawaiian, 319; Phil- 
ippine, 465. 

Indians of Cuba, 58; of Porto 
Rico, 165. 

Indigo, 311, 457. 

Indios, the, 389. 

Indolence, Cuban, 100, 116; Porto 
Rican, 206, 211, 215 ; Philippine, 
418. 

Industrial future, 159, 225, 469, 

Industries, Cuban, 149; Porto 
Rican, 219 ; Hawaiian, 292, 317 ; 
Philippine, 460. 

Insects of Cuba, 40 ; of Porto Rico, 
183 ; of Hawaii, 261 ; of the Phil- 
ippines, 366, 425. 

Insurrection of 1868, 11 ; of 1895, 



12 ; Hawaiian, 235 ; Philippine, 

330- 
Inter-island Steamship Company, 

275- 

Inter-island traffic, 275, 383. 

Interest rates, 223, 

Iron ore, 87, 185, 370. 

Iron wares, 465. 

Irrigation, 276, 301-303. 

Isabel Segunda, 175. 

Isabella Province tobacco, 458. 

Islands, Cuban coast, 16; Ha- 
waiian, 237; Philippine, 334. 

Isle of Pines, 16, 24, 32 ; hot springs 
of, 46. 

J. 

Jamaica, rats in, 304. 
Japanese laborers, 295. 
Jardin el Rey, 24. 
Jardinellos, 24. 
Jardines de la Reina, 24. 
Jardines, springs of the, 22. 
Jatibonico River, 23, 
Jesuit observatory, 398. 
Jesuits in the Philippines, 377. 
Juice, sugar-cane, 140. 
Jungle fowl, 365. 
Juramentados, the, 437. 
Jutia, the, 38. 

Kahulaui, 238, 241. 

Kailua, 285. 

Kalakaua, King, 234. 

Kamehameha I., 229; II., 230, 232, 
278 ; III., 232 ; IV., 234 ; V., -234. 

Kanakas, the, 287. 

Kaolin, 372. 

Kauai, 238, 240, 245, 299. 

Kilauea, crater of, 243, 272 ; erup- 
tions of, 243. 



INDEX. 



481 



Kite-flying, 429. 
Koa tree, 254. 
Kona coffee, 299, 306. 
Kona district, 306. 



Labor, native, 445. 

Labor, plantation, 295-297. 

Labor question, 163. 

Laborers, 139, 418. 

Ladies, Cuban, 97, 122; bathing 
habits of, 102; Porto Rican, 205. 

Ladrone Islands, 324. 

Lag^na de Bay, 34a, 347. 

Lahaina, 248, 285. 

Lake Ariguanabo, 22. 

Lake Bay, 342. 

Lake Bombon, 340, 343. 

Lakes, Cuban, 22; Porto Rican, 
174. 

Lakes, marsh, 25. 

Lakes of Luzon, 343; of Min- 
danao, 343. 

Lala, Ramon, 422. 

Lanai Island, 238, 241 ; sheep on, 

313. 
Land crabs, 39. 
Landscape, Cuban, 26. 
Language, Hawaiian, 292. 
Languages, Philippine, 388. 
Lantana plant, the, 255. 
Las Casas, Luis de, 10. 
Lava, varieties of, 246. 
Lead, 370. 
Leather, 226. 

Legaspi settles the Philippines, 324. 
Lemons in Cuba, 35, 162 ; in Porto 

Rico, 216, 
Lemurs, 364. 
Leprosy in Cuba, 29 ; in Hawaii, 

251 ; in the Philippines, 355. 
Leyson Island, 315. 



Leyte Island, 335, 341, 344; hemp 
of, 445- 

Lianas, the, 33, 255. 

Libraries of Havana, 72, 73. 

Lignite, Philippine, 371. 

Liliuokalani, Queen, 234; insurrec- 
tion against, 235 ; deposition of, 

235- 
Lime, the, 35, 127, 256, 362. 
Limestone caverns and tunnels, 22. 
Limestone rocks, 20, 177. 
Lingayen Bay, 349, 382. 
Lipa, 414, 454. 

Live-stock, 146, 217, 312, 458. 
Lizards, 366. 

Looms, Philippine native, 461. 
Lottery, Cuban, 112; Philippine, 

428. 
Lowlands, Cuban, 21. 
Lumber, 226, 312. 
Lunalilo, King, 234. 
Luneta, the, 402. 
Luzon Island, 324, 335 ; geology 

of, 338 ; description of, 342 ; 

lowlands of, 342; natives, 386; 

towns, 414 ; sugar, 447 ; coffee, 

453- 

M. 

Macagua, 92. 
Machinery, 161, 163, 471. 
McKinley, President, 332. 
Madringa springs, 46. 
Madruga baths, 80. 
Magellan, Ferdinand, 323. 
Maine, sinking of the, 13. 
Mairi plant, 254, 
Maize, 35, 362, 457. 
Majajay, 414. 
Malarial fever, 29, 353. 
Malaspina, Mount, 337, 339. 
Malays, 384, 388, 399, 416; wild 
tribes, 439. 



31 



482 



INDEX. 



Mammee, the, 36, 37. 

Manatee, the. 39. 

Mandayas, the, 437. 

Manganese, 44. 

Mango, the, 36, 255. 361, 455. 

Mangosteen, the, 362. 

Mangrove, the, 25. 

Mangyans, the, 346, 395, 440. 

Manila, founding of, 324 ; taken by 
British, 328 ; taken by Ameri- 
cans, 331 ; temperature of, 352 ; 
streets of, 381, 405 ; Chinese in, 
384 ; schools, 396 ; divisions, 399 ; 
river scenes, 399 ; bridges, 400 ; 
walls, 400 ; buildings, 401 ; luneta, 
402; population, 402; new city, 
403 ; dwellings, 403 ; home life, 
404 ; business streets, 405 ; sub- 
urbs, 406 ; riding, 408 ; proces- 
sions, 408 ; merchants, 463. 

Manila Bay, 347 ; battle of, 331. 

Manila hemp, 443-445. 

Manufactures, Cuban, 149-151 ; 
Porto Rican, 219; Hawaiian, 
317 ; Philippine, 460, 

Manzanillo, 87. 

Marble, 46, 372. 

Marianao, 102. 

Mariel, 20, 83. 

Marinduque Island, 346, 445, 

Marketmen, 116. 

Markets of Havana, 75, 76; of 
Honolulu, 280. 

Maro, Hawaiian dress, 260. 

Marriage customs, 103, 433, 440. 

Marsh region, 25. 

Matanzas, ^^, 78. 

Matanzas, Pan de, 20. tj. 

Matanzas province, soil of, 21. 

Masbate Island, 335, 346 ; grazing 
on, 458. 

Masquerade, carnival, 115. 



Mats, 462. 

Maui Island, 238, 240, 258, 299. 

Mauna Hualalai, 242. 

Mauna Kea, 241, 242, 250. 

Mauna Loa, 241, 242; eruptions 

of, 243, 244. 
Mayaguez, 176, 200. 
Maybon, 437. 
Mayon, Mount, 337; eruptions of, 

339- 
Meals, Cuban, 105. 
Mestiza women, 434 ; dress of, 435, 
Mestizos, 384-386, 434, 435. 
Metals, 41, 367-370. 
Metal work, 462. 
Milk, 458. 

Milkmen, Cuban, no. 
Mills, sugar, 139, 212, 305. 
Mindanao Island, 335 ; volcanoes 

of, 341 ; description of 343 ; 

Moros of 389, 437 ; tribes of, 

395 ; coffee of, 493. 
Mindoro Island, 335, 346. 
Mindoro Sea, 334, 336. 
Mineral springs, 46, 65, 178, 371. 
Minerals, 44, 47, 92, 184, 239, 371. 
Mines near Santiago, 87. 
Mining companies, 43, 44. 
Missionaries in Hawaii, 231, 271, 

324, 327 ; in the Philippines, 376. 
Moa cascade, 23. 
Molasses, 142. 
Molave tree, 358. 
Molines garden, 68. 
Molokai Island, 238, 240, 251. 
Mona Passage, 174; Island, 174. 
Money, 157, 158, 223, 321, 467. 
Mongoose, the, 304. 
Monkeys, 364. 
Monsoons, 351. 
Monte de Pan, 77. 
Montero, the, 116; dress of, 118. 



INDEX. 



483 



Montserrat, shrine of, 204. 

Moro chief, 437. 

Moro Moro play, 432. 

Moros, the, 375 ; history of, 389 ; 
piracies, 389, 416 ; hatred of 
Christians, 390, 392 ; cruelty, 
390 ; weapons, 391 ; home life, 
391; fanaticism, 392; houses, 
424 ; dress and weapons, 436 ; 
character, 437 ; tax paying, 438. 

Morro Castle of Havana, 62, 63 ; 
of Santiago, 86; of San Juan, 

195- 
Mortgages, 223. 
Mountains, Cuban, 17, 30 : Porto 

Rican, 172; Hawaiian, 239, 240; 

Philippine, 337, 342. 
Mules, 41. 
Music in Havana, 98-100; in the 

Philippines, 387, 423, 429. 

N. 
Naguabo, 176, 202. 

Native revolts, 330. 

Natives, Christianity of Philippine, 

376, 379 ; manufactures of. 461 ; 

trade ideas of, 464. 
Natural gas, 92. 
Negritos, the, 386; character ot, 

393 ; description of, 440 ; smoking, 

451- 
Negroes, 8, 59, iii, 190. 
Negros Island, 332, 335, 345 ; sugar 

of, 447, 463. 
Newspapers, 193, 466. 
Niihau Island, 238, 240, 245 ; sheep 

on, 313. 
Nipa palm, 360, 455. 
Nipe Bay, 82. 
Noises of Havana, 67, 96. 
Nuevitas, 82, 92. 
Nuuana Valley, 245, 249, 283. 



Oahu Island, 238, 240, 245, 247. 

Oahu Railway, 237. 

Observatory, Jesuit, 398. 

Officials in Cuba, 11. 

Chela plant, 254. 

Ohia tree, 254 ; forest. 256. 

Orange, the, 35, 162, 311, 361. 

Orchids. 254. 

Ostrich farm, Hawaiian, 314. 

Oysters, Cuban, 40, 148. 

P. 

Palace, Captain-general's, 70. 

Palawan Island, 336, 346. 

Pali, the, 283. 

Palm, royal, 26, 32, 33, 82 ; uses of, 

34. 69. 
Palma brava, 361. 
Palms, 33, 254. 
Panay Island, 335 ; deforestation 

of. 345. 348, 356; sugar of, 447; 

tobacco of, 410 450. 
Pandanus tree, 253. 
Papaya fruit, 256. 
Parks of Havana, 67. 
Parque Central, 69, 98, 100. 
Partagas cigars, 150. 
Paseo, Isabel, 69, 98 ; de Tacon, 

68-73. 
Pasig River, 342, 347; craft of, 

399 ; course of, 400 ; overflow, 

410; ducks on, 459. 
Pasture lands, 144, 210, 218. 
Patriarchal habits, 109. 
Pau, Hawaiian dress, 260. 
Pearl oyster, 366. 
Pearl River harbor, 248. 
Peasants, Porto Rican, 206, 207: 

indolence of, 211, 215. 
Pele, the goddess, 272. 



484 



INDEX. 



Penal settlement, 166. 

Petroleum, 27, 45, 372, 

Philippine Islands, discovery of, 
323, 329 ; ceded to the United 
States, 332; geography, 334; 
number, 334 ; area, 335 ; geology, 
338 : volcanoes, 339 ; harbors, 
347 ; climate, 349 ; seasons, 350 ; 
rainfall, 352 ; diseases, 353 ; for- 
ests, 356-359 ; fruits, 361 ; edible 
roots, 362 ; animals, 362-367 ; 
metals and minerals, 367-372 ; 
government, 373; religion, 376; 
roads, 381; population, 384; 
tribes, 393 ; education, 396 ; to- 
bacco, 450 ; industrial future, 
469. 

Philippine soldiers, 416; sailors, 
41&; swimmers, 417 ; houses, 
423 ; food, 425 : smoking, 425 ; 
betel-nut chewing, 426 ; dress, 
426 ; women, 427 ; gambling, 
428 ; cock-fighting, 429 ; feasts, 
431 ; dances, 431 ; drama, 432 ; 
marriage, 433 ; untruthfulness, 

433- 
Pigs, Hawaiian, 261, 263; wild, 

264 ; Philippine, 458. 
Pifia fabric, 462. 
Piiia Raton hedge, 122, 
Pinar del Rio, 32, 91. 
Pine-apple, 35, 37, 162, 311,361. 
Pines, 32. 

Pirates, Malay, 416. 
Plains, 21, 172, 245, 342, 346. 
Plantain, the, 34, 131, 255. 
Plantation life, 121, 122; railways, 

274; laborers, 295. 
Plantations, sugar, 300. 
Planters, 207. 
Planters, houses of, 121. 
Playa, 176, 199. 



Poi making, 258 ; eating, 259, 311. 

Ponce, port of, 176 ; city of, 199 ; 
industries, 219. 

Ponce de Leon, 165 , castle of, 196. 

Popular divisions, 50. 

Population of Cuba, 10, 57-60 ; of 
Havana, 65 ; of Porto Rico, 189, 
192 ; of Hawaii, 266, 267-269 ; of 
the Philippines, 384. 

Porto Rico, history of, 165-170; 
prosperity, 168 : insurrection in, 
168 ; invasion of, 169 ; cession to 
the United States, 170 ; size and 
location, 171 ; mountains, 172 ; 
fertility and beauty, 172; rivers, 
173 ; lakes, 174 ; islands, 174 ; 
harbors, 175 ; geology, 177 ; cli- 
mate, 178 ; temperature, 178 ; 
rainfall, 179 ; healthfulness, 180 ; 
plants, 181-183 ; animals, 183 ; 
minerals, 184 ; government, 186 ; 
religion, 187; roads, 187; rail- 
ways, 188 ; population, 189, 192, 
194 ; classes, 190 ; education, 192 ; 
cities, 194 ; villages, 203 ; cus- 
toms, 205 ; towns, 208 ; soil, 210 ; 
forests, 211 ; scenery, 211; farm 
crops, 212; manufactures, 219; 
commerce, 219-223 ; finances, 
223 ; future prospects, 225-227. 

Portuguese in Hawaii, 295. 

Postal system, Hawaiian, 277. 

Potatoes, 311, 362. 

Potrillo, peak of, 20. 

Poultry, 41, 147, 218, 458. 

Prado, the, 69, 

Prickly pear, the, 256. 

Priests in the Philippines, 327. 

Prison, royal, 69. 

Processions, religious, 379, 401, 408. 

Provinces of Cuba, 48, 51. 

Public works, 162. 



INDEX. 



485 



Puerto Principe, 82, 92 ; cattle of, 

144 ; horses of, 145. 
Pulu fibre, 311. 

Puna district, 243 ; coffee of, 307. 
Punch bowl, the, 282. 
Punta Arenas, 175. 

R. 

Railways, Cuban, 54, 162 ; Porto 

Rican, 188 ; Hawaiian, 273 ; 

Philippine, 382, 470. 
Rainfall, Cuban, 28, 30; Porto 

Rican, 179 ; Hawaiian, 249, 250 ; 

Philippine, 351, 352. 
Raspberries, 255. 
Rats, 261, 304. 
Rattan, uses of, 366. 
Reconcentration, 12, 424. 
Reforms, promised, ii. 
Regla, 64, 114, 163. 
Religion in Cuba, 52; in Porto 

Rico, 187; in Hawaii, 230-232; 

in the Philippines, 376. 
Religious orders, 377 ; revenues of, 

378. 
Religious processions, 379, 401, 408, 
Representation in Cuba, 49. 
Reptiles, 38, 261. 
Revenue, Cuban, 157. 
Revolts, Philippine native, 330. 
Rice culture, 35, 216, 309, 425, 451- 

453- 
Rivers, Cuban, 21, 22; Porto Rican, 
173 ; Hawaiian, 246 ; Philippine, 

342. 343- 

Roads, Cuban, 53, 162; Porto 
Rican, 187 ; Hawaiian, 273 ; Phil- 
ippine, 381. 

Rock basis of Cuba, 27. 

Rocking-chairs, Havana, 98, 

Rocks, Philippine, 338. 

Roof, life on the, 99. 



Rosario, Falls of the, 23. 

Rose-apple, 36. 

Royal palm, 26, 32, 33, 182 ; uses 

of, 34, 69. 
Running amuck, 419. 
Rural population, 116-121, 206- 

209. 
Russell & Sturgis, firm of, 463. 



Sabana Camaguey, 24. 

Sagua la Grande, 81. 

Sagua la Grande River, 22. 

St. Lazarus Islands, 323. 

Salt lake, Hawaiian, 247. 

Salt production, 46, 185. 

Samar Island, 335, 344. 

San Antonio de los Banos, 92, 95. 

San Antonio River, 23. 

San Cristobal, 91. 

San Diego springs, 46, 94. 

San German, 202. 

San Jose de Buenavista, 348. 

San Juan, hill of, 87. 

San Juan Bautista, 165 ; harbor of, 
175. "^n \ schools, 193 ; descrip- 
tion of, 194-196 ; industries, 219. 

San Juan de los Remedios, 81. 

San Juan y Trinidad Mountains, 20. 

San Vicente, 95, 

Sandal wood, 254, 258. 

Sandwich Islands, 237. 

Sanitation, lack of, 30. 

Santa Clara, 92. 

Santa Clara province, 21, 146. 

Santa Cruz del Sur, 88. 

Santa Fe hot springs, 46, 94. 

Santa Rita mineral springs, 65, 102. 

Santiago de Cuba, settlement of, 
8, 17 ; blockade and capture of, 
13 ; mountains adjacent to, 18 ; 
cleaning of, 30; location, 83; 



486 



INDEX. 



streets, 84, 85 ; cathedral, 84 ; 
saloons, 85 ; sanitation, 86 ; bay 
of, 86 ; Morro Castle, 86 ; mines 
in vicinity, 87 ; gambling pro- 
hibited, 113. 

Santiago de Cuba province, 18 ; 
copper of, 42 ; iron, 43 ; coal, 44 ; 
mineral wealth, 47; coffee, 126; 
live-stock, 146. 

Santiago de los Vegas, 92. 

Sapan wood, 411, 457. 

Sapodilla, the, 35. 

Scenery, Cuban, 26, 30; Matanzas, 
79 ; Trinidad, 89. 

Schools, 60, 61, 193, 270, 396. 

Sea-bathing, 74. 

Seasons, Cuban, 28 ; Porto Rican, 
179; Hawaiian, 250; Philippine, 
350- 

Serpentine rocks, 27. 

Serpents in Cuba, 38 ; in Porto Rico, 
183 ; in the Philippines, 365. 

Sewerage, 67, 163. 

Shark killing, 262, 291, 417, 

Sheep raising, 41, 264, 313, 

Shellfish, large, 366. 

Shipping, Cuban, 152; Hawaiian, 
320. 

Shipping ports, 154. 

Sibuyan Island, 335. 

Sierra de Cubitas, 19, 43, 93. 

Sierra Luquillo, 172, 181. 

Sierra Maestra, 18, 20, 43, 44. 

Silver, 42, 369, 467. 

Slavery in Cuba, 42 ; abolition of, 
51 ; in Porto Rico, 167, 191 ; in 
the Philippines, 437. 

Slaves, 8 ; join rebels, 51, 59 ; treat- 
ment of, 191. 

Small-pox, 354. 

Smoking in Cuba, loi ; in the 
Philippines, 425, 429, 451. 



Snakes, 38, 183. 
Soil, fertihty of, 21, 116. 
Soils, Cuban, 27, 132 ; Porto Rican, 
210; Hawaiian, 301, 307, 309, 

314. 
Solenodon, the, 38. 
Spain, barbarity of, 12; war with, 

13 ; policy of, 13 ; cedes the 

Philippines, 332. 
Spanish class, Porto Rico, 190, 205. 
Spanish farm laws, 456. 
Spanish settlement at Cebu, 324 ; 

at Manila, 324. 
Sponges, Cuban, 147. 
Spreckles, Claus, 301. 
Springs, mineral, 94, 95, 102. 
Star-apple, 35. 
State dress, Philippine. 375. 
Steamship lines, 56, 189, 274, 320, 

383. 
Steere expedition, 346. 
Stores of Havana, 66, 67, 
Storms, 28, 179, 251, 350, 351. 
Strawberries, 255. 
Street railways, 55, 163, 274. 
Street scenes, 199, 406, 409. 
Streets of Havana, 65, 74. 
Sual, 349. 
Subig Bay, 349. 
Sugar, manufacture of, 141-143 ; 

exports to United States, 154, 

305- 

Sugar-cane, culture of, 136, 137 ; 
cutting and grinding, 139 ; crush- 
ing, 140-142; cultivation, 143, 
160 ; in Porto Rico, 212, 213 ; in 
Hawaii, 299-306; in Philippines, 
446-449. 

Sugar-mills, 139, 212, 300. 

Sulphur, 341, 372. 

Sulphur springs, 437. 

Sultan Harun, 437. 



INDEX. 



487 



Sultan, Moro, 375, 437. 

Sulu, 354, 413. 

Sulu Islands, 334, 336, 346, 375, 

437- 
Summer resorts, 102. 
Sunday in Cuba, iii. 
Surf-swimming, 289-291. 
Sweet potato, 35, 76, n6. 216, 310, 

362. 
Swine, 315, 364. 

T, 

Taal, 414. 

Taal sugar, 448. 

Taal volcano, 340. 

Tablas Island, 335. 

Tabu, the, 230 ; overthrow of, 234. 

Tacloban harbor, 348. 

Tacon theatre, 71, 115. 

Tagals, the. 386, 387, 400. 

Tagbanuas, the, 394, 424; religion 
of, 439- 

Tamarind-tree, 33, 35. 

Taro plant, 258, 311. 

Tawi Tawi Island, 336. 

Taxes, Philippine, 374, 469. 

Telegraph, 57, 189, 276, 383. 

Telephone, 189, 296. 

Temperature, Cuban, 28 ; Porto 
Rican, 178 ; Hawaiian, 249 ; 
Manila, 352. 

Territory of Hawaii, 266. 

Theatres of Havana, 72. 

Ti-tree, 260. 

Ticao Island, 335. 

Tierro Adentro, 50. 

Timarau, the, 363. 

Tobacco, Cuban, 21, 37; culture 
of, 132-136; use of, 149; exports 
of, 155 ; development. 160; Porto 
Rican, 216; Hawaiian, 311 ; Phil- 
ippine, 330, 450, 460. 



Tobacco region, 50. 

Tondo, 406. 

Towns and cities, 62-95, 194, 208, 
278. 399. 

Trade-winds, 250. 

Traffic, inter-island, 275, 383. 

Transportation, 53, 383. 

Travel, Cuban, 53 ; Philippine, 382. 

Tree ferns, 254. 

Trees of Cuba, 26, 32 ; of Porto 
Rico, 181; of Hawaii, 253; of 
the Philippines, 356-359. 

Tribes, Philippine, 375, 386, 387, 

394- 
Trinidad, 8, 20, 88 ; horses of, 144. 
Trocha, the, 19, 20. 
Tropical climate, effects of, 471. 
Truck-growers, 116. 
Tulisanes, the, 396. 
Turquino, peak of, 18. 
Turtles, 147, 184. 
Typhoons, effects of, 351. 

u. 

United States' sympathy with Cu- 
bans, 12; war with Spain, 13, 
169. 331 '• trade with Cuba, 154- 
156; with Porto Rico, 221, 222; 
with Hawaii, 318 ; treaty with 
Spain, 331 ; trade with the Phil- 
ippines, 449, 466 ; relation to the 
Philippines, 469. 

University of Havana, 60; of St. 
Thomas, 398. 

Utuado, 203. 



Vacuum-pans, sugar, 141. 
Valley of Yumurri, 78 ; of the Mag- 
dalen, 78. 
Valleys of Hawaii, 245. 



— ^87^9 



INDEX. 



Vancouver, 228, 230. 

Vegetables, garden, 35, 311. 

Vegetation, Cuban, 30. 

Vieques Island, 175, 177. 

Villa Clara, 92. 

Village headmen, 374. 

Villages of Porto Rico, 203 ; of the 
Philippines, 424. 

Visayas island group, 335. 

Visayas, the, 388. 

Volante, the, 53. 

Volcanic structure of Hawaii, 239. 

Volcanoes, Hawaiian, 241-244; 
Philippine, 339-341- 

Vuelta Abajo region, 50, 91 ; to- 
bacco district, 133. 

Vuelta Arriba region, 50. 

w. 

Waikiki, 283. 

Walls of San Juan, 196 ; of Manila, 

400. 
War cloak, Hawaiian, 261. 
War with Spain, 13. 
Water buffalo, the, 382. 
Water supply of Havana, 76; of 

San Juan, 197 ; of Honolulu, 276. 
Wauti-tree, 260. 
Wet season of Cuba. 28 ; of Porto 

Rico, 179 ; of Hawaii, 250 ; of the 

Philippines, 350. 
Wheat, 311, 362. 
White ants, 367. 
White labor in Porto Rico, 166. 



Whites in Hawaii 229, 235. 

Wild animals, 312, 364. 

Wild cattle, 263. 

Wild dogs, 183, 264. 

Wild tribes, 393, 439. 

Wilder Steamship Company, 275. 

Windows, Cuban, 98 ; Philippine, 

403- 

Winds, prevailing Cuban, 29 ; Ha- 
waiian, 249, 250, 

Wine-drinking, 106. 

Winter resort, Cuba as a, 164, 

Women, Cuban, 119; Hawaiian, 
288, 290; Philippine, 427, 434, 

463. 
Wood, General, 85. 
Woods, Cuban, 32; Porto Rican, 

182; Hawaiian, 312 ; Philippine, 

357-359- 
Worcester, Dean C, 353, 37S. 4^9- 

Yam, the, 34. 
Yauco, 203. 
Yellow fever, 29. 
Ylang-ylang, the, 457. 
Young, John, 278. 
Yumurri Valley, 78. 



Zamboango, 348, 412. 
Zamboango peninsula, 343. 
Zapata marsh, 25. 



THE END. 



